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<title>Operation Downfall</title>

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Operation Downfall

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Invasion of Japan" redirects here. For the failed Mongol invasion attempts, see <a href="Mongol_invasions_of_Japan" title="Mongol invasions of Japan">Mongol invasions of Japan</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Soviet invasion of Japan" redirects here. For Soviet invasion of Manchuria which was under Japanese rule, see <a href="Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Operation Downfall</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="Mainland_Japan" title="Mainland Japan">Mainland Japan</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Planned</th><td class="infobox-data">Before August 1945</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Planned by</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="Chester_Nimitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Chester Nimitz">Chester Nimitz</a></li><li><a href="Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a></li><li><a href="Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Commanded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Objective</th><td class="infobox-data">Defeat the <a href="Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Executed by</th><td class="infobox-data">See <a href="Operation_Downfall_order_of_battle" title="Operation Downfall order of battle">order of battle</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data">Cancelled after the unconditional <a href="Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">surrender of Japan</a> on August 15, 1945</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Casualties</th><td class="infobox-data">See <a href="#Estimated_casualties">estimated casualties</a></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

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</style><div id="Japan_campaign_of_the_Pacific_War4121" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Japan_campaign" title="Japan campaign">Japan campaign</a> of the <a href="Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dl><dt><a href="Air_raids_on_Japan" title="Air raids on Japan">Air raids</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Doolittle Raid</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Yawata_(June_1944)" title="Bombing of Yawata (June 1944)">Yawata</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Nagaoka" title="Bombing of Nagaoka">Nagaoka</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Numazu_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Numazu in World War II">Numazu</a></li>

<li> <a href="Bombing_of_Tokyo" title="Bombing of Tokyo">Tokyo</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bombing_of_Tokyo_(10_March_1945)" title="Bombing of Tokyo (10 March 1945)">Meetinghouse</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Nagoya" title="Bombing of Nagoya">Nagoya</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Osaka" title="Bombing of Osaka">Osaka</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Sendai_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Sendai during World War II">Sendai</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Fukui_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Fukui during World War II">Fukui</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Fukuoka" title="Bombing of Fukuoka">Fukuoka</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Akita_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Akita in World War II">Akita</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Aomori_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Aomori in World War II">Aomori</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Hamamatsu_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hamamatsu in World War II">Hamamatsu</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Hiratsuka_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Hiratsuka in World War II">Hiratsuka</a></li>

<li> <a href="Bombing_of_Utsunomiya_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Utsunomiya during World War II">Utsunomiya</a></li>

<li><a href="Toyohashi_Air_Raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Toyohashi Air Raid">Toyohashi</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Toyokawa_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Toyokawa in World War II">Toyokawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Yokkaichi_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Yokkaichi in World War II">Yokkaichi</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Okazaki_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Okazaki in World War II">Okazaki</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Shizuoka_in_World_War_II" title="Bombing of Shizuoka in World War II">Shizuoka</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_Kumagaya_in_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of Kumagaya in World War II">Kumagaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Attack_on_Yokosuka" title="Attack on Yokosuka">Yokosuka</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt>Battles</dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Japanese_air_attacks_on_the_Mariana_Islands" title="Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign" title="Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign">Volcano and Ryukyu Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Starvation" title="Operation Starvation">Starvation</a></li>

<li><a href="Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardments</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Sagami_Bay" title="Battle of Sagami Bay">Sagami Bay</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" title="Soviet invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li>

<li><a href="Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Proposed_Soviet_invasion_of_Hokkaido" title="Proposed Soviet invasion of Hokkaido">Hokkaido (cancelled)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pacific_War7727" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Pacific_War7727" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<dl><dt>Central Pacific</dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">Pearl Harbor</a></li>

<li><a href="Marshalls%E2%80%93Gilberts_raids" title="Marshalls–Gilberts raids">Marshalls–Gilberts raids</a></li>

<li><a href="Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Doolittle Raid</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Midway" title="Battle of Midway">Midway</a></li>

<li><a href="Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilberts and Marshalls</a></li>

<li><a href="Mariana_and_Palau_Islands_campaign" title="Mariana and Palau Islands campaign">Marianas and Palau</a></li>

<li><a href="Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign" title="Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign">Volcano and Ryukyu</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_Island_massacre" title="Ocean Island massacre">Ocean Island</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="Indian_Ocean_in_World_War_II" title="Indian Ocean in World War II">Indian Ocean (1941–1945)</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Japanese_raiders_in_the_Indian_Ocean" title="Japanese raiders in the Indian Ocean">Japanese merchant raids</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_occupation_of_the_Andaman_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a>

<ul><li><a href="Homfreyganj_massacre" title="Homfreyganj massacre">Homfreyganj massacre</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Christmas_Island" title="Battle of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Ocean_raid" title="Indian Ocean raid">1st Indian Ocean</a>

<ul><li><a href="Easter_Sunday_Raid" title="Easter Sunday Raid">Ceylon</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Stab" title="Operation Stab">Bay of Bengal</a></li>

<li><a href="Indian_Ocean_raid_(1944)" title="Indian Ocean raid (1944)">2nd Indian Ocean</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="South-East_Asian_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South-East Asian theatre of World War II">Southeast Asia</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Japanese_invasion_of_French_Indochina" title="Japanese invasion of French Indochina">Indochina (1940)</a></li>

<li><a href="Franco-Thai_War" title="Franco-Thai War">Franco-Thai War</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_invasion_of_Thailand" title="Japanese invasion of Thailand">Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="Malayan_campaign" title="Malayan campaign">Malaya</a></li>

<li><a href="Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Singapore</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_coup_d'%C3%A9tat_in_French_Indochina" title="Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina">Indochina (1945)</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Malacca_Strait" title="Battle of the Malacca Strait">Malacca Strait</a></li>

<li><a href="August_Revolution" title="August Revolution">Vietnam</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Jurist" title="Operation Jurist">Jurist</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Tiderace" title="Operation Tiderace">Tiderace</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Zipper" title="Operation Zipper">Zipper</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombing_of_South-East_Asia_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bombing of South-East Asia (1944–45)">Strategic bombing (1944–45)</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="Burma_campaign" title="Burma campaign">Burma and India</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Burma (1941–42)</a></li>

<li><a href="Burma_campaign_(1942%E2%80%931943)" title="Burma campaign (1942–1943)">Burma (1942–43)</a></li>

<li><a href="Burma_campaign_(1944)" title="Burma campaign (1944)">Burma and India (1944)</a></li>

<li><a href="Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">Burma (1944–45)</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="South_West_Pacific_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="South West Pacific theatre of World War II">Southwest Pacific</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Dutch_East_Indies_campaign" title="Dutch East Indies campaign">Dutch East Indies (1941–42)</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Philippines (1941–42)</a></li>

<li><a href="Solomon_Islands_campaign" title="Solomon Islands campaign">Solomon Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_the_Coral_Sea" title="Battle of the Coral Sea">Coral Sea</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Timor" title="Battle of Timor">Timor</a></li>

<li><a href="Axis_naval_activity_in_Australian_waters" title="Axis naval activity in Australian waters">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Guinea_campaign" title="New Guinea campaign">New Guinea</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Britain_campaign" title="New Britain campaign">New Britain</a></li>

<li><a href="Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">Philippines (1944–45)</a></li>

<li><a href="Borneo_campaign" title="Borneo campaign">Borneo (1945)</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">North America</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Bombardment_of_Ellwood" title="Bombardment of Ellwood">Ellwood</a></li>

<li><a href="Aleutian_Islands_campaign" title="Aleutian Islands campaign">Aleutian Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="American_Theater_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="American Theater (World War II)">Estevan Point Lighthouse</a></li>

<li><a href="Bombardment_of_Fort_Stevens" title="Bombardment of Fort Stevens">Fort Stevens</a></li>

<li><a href="Lookout_Air_Raids" title="Lookout Air Raids">Lookout Air Raids</a></li>

<li><a href="Fu-Go_balloon_bomb" title="Fu-Go balloon bomb">Fire balloon bombs</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a></li>

<dl><dt><a href="Japan_campaign" title="Japan campaign">Japan</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Air_raids_on_Japan" title="Air raids on Japan">Air raids</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bombing_of_Tokyo" title="Bombing of Tokyo">Tokyo</a></li>

<li><a href="Attack_on_Yokosuka" title="Attack on Yokosuka">Yokosuka</a></li>

<li><a href="Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_air_attacks_on_the_Mariana_Islands" title="Japanese air attacks on the Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Volcano_and_Ryukyu_Islands_campaign" title="Volcano and Ryukyu Islands campaign">Volcano and Ryukyu Islands</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Starvation" title="Operation Starvation">Starvation</a></li>

<li><a href="Allied_naval_bombardments_of_Japan_during_World_War_II" title="Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II">Naval bombardments</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Sagami_Bay" title="Battle of Sagami Bay">Sagami Bay</a></li>

<li><a href="Invasion_of_South_Sakhalin" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of South Sakhalin">South Sakhalin</a></li>

<li><a href="Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Shumshu</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japanese surrender</a></li></ul>

<dl><dt><a href="Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Manchuria and Northern Korea</a></dt></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Kantokuen" title="Kantokuen">Kantokuen</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Manchuria (1945)</a>

<ul><li><a href="Battle_of_Mutanchiang" title="Battle of Mutanchiang">Mutanchiang</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Seishin_Operation" title="Seishin Operation">Chongjin</a></li></ul>

<hr>

<a href="Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

Operation Downfall was the proposed <a href="Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> plan for the invasion of the <a href="Japanese_archipelago" title="Japanese archipelago">Japanese home islands</a> near the <a href="End_of_World_War_II_in_Asia" title="End of World War II in Asia">end of World War II</a>. It was canceled when <a href="Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Japan surrendered</a> following the <a href="Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, the <a href="Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet declaration of war</a>, and the <a href="Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">invasion of Manchuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009xvi-1">[1]</a>

The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in November 1945, Operation Olympic was intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, <a href="Kyushu" title="Kyushu">Kyūshū</a>, with the <a href="Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">recently captured</a> island of <a href="Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a> to be used as a staging area. In early 1946 would come Operation Coronet, the planned invasion of the <a href="Kant%C5%8D_Plain" title="Kantō Plain">Kantō Plain</a>, near <a href="Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>, on the main Japanese island of <a href="Honshu" title="Honshu">Honshu</a>. Airbases on Kyūshū captured in Operation Olympic would allow land-based air support for Operation Coronet. If Downfall had taken place, it would have been the largest <a href="Amphibious_operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibious operation">amphibious operation</a> in history, surpassing <a href="Normandy_Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandy Landings">D-Day</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacArthur-2">[2]</a>

<a href="Geography_of_Japan" title="Geography of Japan">Japan's geography</a> made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese as well; they were able to accurately predict the Allied invasion plans and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%8F%B7%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6" class="extiw external" title="ja:決号作戦">(ja)</a>, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Casualty predictions varied but were extremely high, from the low hundreds of thousands to over a million on the Allied side and into the millions for the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank340-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planning">Planning</h2></div>

Responsibility for the planning of Operation Downfall fell to American commanders <a href="Fleet_Admiral_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fleet Admiral (United States)">Fleet Admiral</a> <a href="Chester_Nimitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Chester Nimitz">Chester Nimitz</a>, <a href="General_of_the_Army_(United_States)" title="General of the Army (United States)">General of the Army</a> <a href="Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">Douglas MacArthur</a> and the <a href="Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>—Fleet Admirals <a href="Ernest_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest King">Ernest King</a> and <a href="William_D._Leahy" title="William D. Leahy">William D. Leahy</a>, and Generals of the Army <a href="George_Marshall" class="mw-redirect" title="George Marshall">George Marshall</a> and <a href="Henry_H._Arnold" title="Henry H. Arnold">Henry H. Arnold</a> (the latter being the commander of the <a href="United_States_Army_Air_Forces" title="United States Army Air Forces">U.S. Army Air Forces</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates18-4">[4]</a>

At the time, the development of the <a href="Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> was a very closely guarded secret, known only to a few top officials outside the <a href="Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> (and to the Soviet espionage apparatus, which had managed to infiltrate or recruit agents within the program, despite the tight security around it), and the initial planning for the invasion of Japan did not take its existence into consideration. Once the atomic bomb became available, General Marshall envisioned using it to support the invasion if sufficient numbers could be produced in time.<a href="#cite_note-Perret_1991-5">[5]</a>

The <a href="Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a> was not under a single Allied <a href="Commander-in-chief" title="Commander-in-chief">commander-in-chief</a> (C-in-C). Allied command was divided into regions: by 1945, for example, Chester Nimitz was the Allied C-in-C <a href="Pacific_Ocean_Areas" title="Pacific Ocean Areas">Pacific Ocean Areas</a>, while Douglas MacArthur was Supreme Allied Commander, <a href="South_West_Pacific_Area" title="South West Pacific Area">South West Pacific Area</a>, and Admiral <a href="Louis_Mountbatten%2C_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Louis Mountbatten</a> was the Supreme Allied Commander, <a href="South_East_Asia_Command" title="South East Asia Command">South East Asia Command</a>. A unified command was deemed necessary for an invasion of Japan. <a href="Interservice_rivalry" title="Interservice rivalry">Interservice rivalry</a> over who it should be (the <a href="United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> wanted Nimitz, but the <a href="United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> wanted MacArthur) was so serious that it threatened to derail planning. Ultimately, the Navy partially conceded, and MacArthur was to be given total command of all forces if circumstances made it necessary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates55–57-6">[6]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Considerations">Considerations</h3></div>

The primary considerations that the planners had to deal with were time and casualties—how they could force Japan's surrender as quickly as possible with as few Allied casualties as possible. Before the <a href="First_Quebec_Conference" title="First Quebec Conference">First Quebec Conference</a>, a joint Canadian–British–American planning team had produced a plan ("Appreciation and Plan for the Defeat of Japan") which did not call for an invasion of the Japanese Home Islands until 1947–48.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates37-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpector276–77-8">[8]</a> The American Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that prolonging the war to such an extent was dangerous for national morale. Instead, at the Quebec conference, the <a href="Combined_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Combined Chiefs of Staff">Combined Chiefs of Staff</a> agreed that Japan should be forced to surrender not more than one year after <a href="Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">Germany's surrender</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

The United States Navy urged the use of a <a href="Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> and airpower to bring about Japan's capitulation. They proposed operations to capture airbases in nearby <a href="Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a>, <a href="Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">China</a>, and <a href="Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, which would give the United States Army Air Forces a series of forward airbases from which to bombard Japan into submission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates44–50-11">[11]</a> The Army, on the other hand, argued that such a strategy could "prolong the war indefinitely" and expend lives needlessly, and therefore that an invasion was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowser65-12">[12]</a> They supported mounting a large-scale thrust directly against the Japanese homeland, with none of the side operations that the Navy had suggested. Ultimately, the Army's viewpoint prevailed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates53–54-13">[13]</a>

Initially in early 1943, the Joint War Plans Committee (JWPC) and the Army’s Strategy Section supported an invasion of <a href="Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a> via the <a href="Aleutians" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleutians">Aleutians</a> and Hawaii in 1945.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowser65-12">[12]</a> They believed that Hokkaido was a well-placed, lightly defended island that offered suitable bases for a later invasion of Honshu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatloff310–311-14">[14]</a> Planners eventually recognized however that the prospects for a successful invasion of Hokkaido in the summer of 1945 was increasingly unrealistic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatloff310–311-14">[14]</a>

Physically, Japan made an imposing target, distant from other landmasses and with very few beaches geographically suitable for sea-borne invasion. Only <a href="Ky%C5%ABsh%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyūshū">Kyūshū</a> (the southernmost island of Japan) and the beaches of the <a href="Kant%C5%8D_region" title="Kantō region">Kantō Plain</a> (both southwest and southeast of <a href="Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a>) were realistic invasion zones. The Allies decided to launch a two-stage invasion. Operation Olympic would attack southern Kyūshū. Airbases would be established, which would give cover for Operation Coronet, the attack on <a href="Tokyo_Bay" title="Tokyo Bay">Tokyo Bay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009169-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assumptions">Assumptions</h3></div>

While the geography of Japan was known, the U.S. military planners had to estimate the defending forces that they would face. Based on intelligence available early in 1945, their assumptions included the following:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland2-16">[16]</a>

<ul><li>"That operations in this area will be opposed not only by the available organized military forces of the Empire, but also by a fanatically hostile population."</li>

<li>"That approximately three (3) hostile <a href="Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">divisions</a> will be disposed in Southern Kyushu and an additional three (3) in Northern Kyushu at initiation of the Olympic operation."</li>

<li>"That total hostile forces committed against Kyushu operations will not exceed eight (8) to ten (10) divisions and that this level will be speedily attained."</li>

<li>"That approximately twenty-one (21) hostile divisions, including depot divisions, will be on Honshu at the initiation of [Coronet] and that fourteen (14) of these divisions may be employed in the Kanto Plain area."</li>

<li>"That the enemy may withdraw his land-based air forces to the Asiatic Mainland for protection from our neutralizing attacks. That under such circumstances he can possibly amass from 2,000 to 2,500 planes in that area by exercising a rigid economy, and that this force can operate against Kyushu landings by <a href="Staging_area" title="Staging area">staging</a> through homeland fields."</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Olympic">Olympic</h3></div>

Operation Olympic, the invasion of Kyūshū, was to begin on "X-Day", which was scheduled for November 1, 1945. The combined Allied naval armada would have been the largest ever assembled, including 42 <a href="Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a>, 24 <a href="Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a>, and 400 <a href="Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a> and <a href="Destroyer_escort" title="Destroyer escort">destroyer escorts</a>. Fourteen U.S. divisions and a "division-equivalent" (two <a href="Regimental_combat_team" title="Regimental combat team">regimental combat teams</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200940-17">[17]</a> were scheduled to take part in the initial landings. Using <a href="Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a> as a staging base, the objective would have been to seize the southern portion of Kyūshū. This area would then be used as a further staging point to attack Honshu in Operation Coronet.

Olympic was also to include a <a href="Military_deception" title="Military deception">deception</a> plan, known as <a href="Operation_Pastel" title="Operation Pastel">Operation Pastel</a>. Pastel was designed to convince the Japanese that the Joint Chiefs had rejected the notion of a direct invasion and instead were going to attempt to encircle and bombard Japan. This would require capturing bases in <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Formosa</a>, along the Chinese coast, and in the <a href="Yellow_Sea" title="Yellow Sea">Yellow Sea</a> area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates160-18">[18]</a> However, as the actual build-up of American forces would clearly be directed towards Japan, the assault on China would then appear to be cancelled, with a new invasion seemingly being planned against <a href="Shikoku" title="Shikoku">Shikoku</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-HuberPastel-19">[19]</a>

Tactical air support was to be the responsibility of the <a href="Fifth_Air_Force" title="Fifth Air Force">Fifth</a>, <a href="Seventh_Air_Force" title="Seventh Air Force">Seventh</a>, and <a href="Thirteenth_Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirteenth Air Force">Thirteenth Air Forces</a>. These were responsible for attacking Japanese airfields and transportation arteries on Kyushu and Southern Honshu (e.g. the <a href="Kanmon_Railway_Tunnel" title="Kanmon Railway Tunnel">Kanmon Tunnel</a>) and for gaining and maintaining air superiority over the beaches. The task of strategic bombing fell on the <a href="United_States_Strategic_Air_Forces_in_the_Pacific" title="United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific">United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific</a> (USASTAF)—a formation which comprised the <a href="Eighth_Air_Force" title="Eighth Air Force">Eighth</a> and <a href="Twentieth_Air_Force" title="Twentieth Air Force">Twentieth</a> air forces, as well as the British <a href="Tiger_Force_(air)" title="Tiger Force (air)">Tiger Force</a>. USASTAF and Tiger Force were to remain active through Operation Coronet. The <a href="Twentieth_Air_Force" title="Twentieth Air Force">Twentieth Air Force</a> was to have continued its role as the main Allied <a href="Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">strategic bomber</a> force used against the Japanese home islands, operating from airfields in the <a href="Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a>. Following the end of the war in Europe in May 1945, plans were also made to transfer some of the heavy bomber groups of the veteran Eighth Air Force to airbases on Okinawa to conduct strategic bombing raids in coordination with the Twentieth.<a href="#cite_note-usafhra1-20">[20]</a> The Eighth was to upgrade their <a href="B-17_Flying_Fortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-17 Flying Fortress">B-17 Flying Fortresses</a> and <a href="B-24_Liberator" class="mw-redirect" title="B-24 Liberator">B-24 Liberators</a> to <a href="B-29_Superfortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-29 Superfortress">B-29 Superfortresses</a> (the group received its first B-29 on August 8, 1945).<a href="#cite_note-usafhra1-20">[20]</a> In total, General Henry Arnold estimated that the bomb tonnage dropped in the Pacific Theater by USAAF aircraft alone would exceed 1,050,000 tons in 1945 and 3,150,000 tons in 1946, excluding the blast yields of nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a>

Before the main invasion, the offshore islands of <a href="Tanegashima" title="Tanegashima">Tanegashima</a>, <a href="Yakushima" title="Yakushima">Yakushima</a>, and the <a href="Koshikijima_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Koshikijima Islands">Koshikijima Islands</a> were to be taken, starting on X−5.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates184-22">[22]</a> The invasion of Okinawa had demonstrated the value of establishing secure anchorages close at hand, for ships not needed off the landing beaches and for ships damaged by air attack.

Kyūshū was to be invaded by the <a href="Sixth_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth United States Army">Sixth United States Army</a> at three points: <a href="Miyazaki%2C_Miyazaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyazaki, Miyazaki">Miyazaki</a>, <a href="Ariake%2C_Kagoshima" title="Ariake, Kagoshima">Ariake</a>, and <a href="Kushikino%2C_Kagoshima" title="Kushikino, Kagoshima">Kushikino</a>. If a clock were drawn on a map of Kyūshū, these points would roughly correspond to 4, 5, and 7 o'clock, respectively. The 35 landing beaches were all named for automobiles: <a href="Austin_Motor_Company" title="Austin Motor Company">Austin</a>, <a href="Buick" title="Buick">Buick</a>, <a href="Cadillac_(automobile)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadillac (automobile)">Cadillac</a>, and so on through to <a href="Stutz_Bearcat" title="Stutz Bearcat">Stutz</a>, <a href="Winton_automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Winton automobile">Winton</a>, and <a href="Lincoln-Zephyr" title="Lincoln-Zephyr">Zephyr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> With one <a href="Corps" title="Corps">corps</a> assigned to each landing, the invasion planners assumed that the Americans would outnumber the Japanese by roughly three to one. In early 1945, Miyazaki was virtually undefended, while Ariake, with its good nearby harbor, was heavily defended.

The invasion was not intended to conquer the entire island, just the southernmost third of it, as indicated by the dashed line on the map labeled "general limit of northern advance". Southern Kyūshū would offer a staging ground and a valuable airbase for Operation Coronet.

After the name Operation Olympic was compromised by being sent out in unsecured code, the name Operation Majestic was adopted.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coronet">Coronet</h3></div>

Operation Coronet, the invasion of <a href="Honshu" title="Honshu">Honshu</a> at the <a href="Kant%C5%8D_Plain" title="Kantō Plain">Kantō Plain</a> south of the capital, was to begin on "Y-Day", which was tentatively scheduled for March 1, 1946.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009169-15">[15]</a> Coronet would have been even larger than Olympic, with up to 45 U.S. divisions assigned for both the initial landing and follow-up<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> (by comparison, <a href="Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">the invasion of Normandy</a> deployed twelve divisions in the initial landings). In the initial stage, the <a href="First_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="First United States Army">First Army</a> would have invaded at <a href="Kuj%C5%ABkuri_Beach" title="Kujūkuri Beach">Kujūkuri Beach</a>, on the <a href="B%C5%8Ds%C5%8D_Peninsula" title="Bōsō Peninsula">Bōsō Peninsula</a>, while the <a href="Eighth_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighth United States Army">Eighth Army</a> invaded at <a href="Hiratsuka" title="Hiratsuka">Hiratsuka</a>, on <a href="Sagami_Bay" title="Sagami Bay">Sagami Bay</a>; these armies would have comprised 25 divisions between them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009168-25">[25]</a> Later, a follow-up force of up to twenty additional U.S. divisions and up to five or more British Commonwealth divisions would have landed as reinforcements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200926,_62-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The Allied forces would then have driven north and inland, encircling Tokyo and pressing on toward Nagano.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Redeployment">Redeployment</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Operation_Downfall_order_of_battle" title="Operation Downfall order of battle">Operation Downfall order of battle</a></div>

Olympic was to be mounted with resources already present in the Pacific, including the <a href="British_Pacific_Fleet" title="British Pacific Fleet">British Pacific Fleet</a>, a <a href="Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> formation that included at least eighteen aircraft carriers (providing 25% of the Allied air power) and four battleships.

Tiger Force, a joint Commonwealth long-range <a href="Heavy_bomber" title="Heavy bomber">heavy bomber</a> unit, was to be transferred from <a href="Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">RAF</a>, <a href="Royal_Australian_Air_Force" title="Royal Australian Air Force">RAAF</a>, <a href="Royal_Canadian_Air_Force" title="Royal Canadian Air Force">RCAF</a> and <a href="Royal_New_Zealand_Air_Force" title="Royal New Zealand Air Force">RNZAF</a> units and personnel serving with <a href="RAF_Bomber_Command" title="RAF Bomber Command">RAF Bomber Command</a> in Europe. In 1944, early planning proposed a force of 500–1,000 aircraft, including units dedicated to <a href="Aerial_refueling" title="Aerial refueling">aerial refueling</a>. Planning was later scaled back to 22 squadrons and, by the time the war ended, to 10 squadrons: between 120 and 150 <a href="Avro_Lancaster" title="Avro Lancaster">Avro Lancasters</a>/<a href="Avro_Lincoln" title="Avro Lincoln">Lincolns</a>, operating out of airbases on Okinawa. Tiger Force was to have included the elite <a href="No._617_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 617 Squadron RAF">617 Squadron</a>, also known as "The Dambusters", which carried out specialist bombing operations.

Initially, US planners also did not plan to use any non-US Allied ground forces in Operation Downfall. Had reinforcements been needed at an early stage of Olympic, they would have been diverted from US forces being assembled for Coronet—for which there was to be a massive redeployment of units from the US Army's <a href="South_West_Pacific_Area_(command)" class="mw-redirect" title="South West Pacific Area (command)">Southwest Pacific</a>, <a href="China_Burma_India_Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="China Burma India Theater">China-Burma-India</a> and <a href="European_Theater_of_Operations%2C_United_States_Army" title="European Theater of Operations, United States Army">European</a> commands, among others. These would have included spearheads of the war in Europe such as the <a href="US_First_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="US First Army">US First Army</a> (15 divisions) and the Eighth Air Force. These redeployments would have been complicated by the simultaneous demobilization and replacement of highly experienced, time-served personnel, which would have drastically reduced the combat effectiveness of many units.

U.S. commanders rejected the Australian government’s early request for inclusion of an <a href="Australian_Army" title="Australian Army">Australian Army</a> infantry division in the first wave (Olympic).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay297-28">[28]</a> Not even the initial plans for Coronet envisaged landing units from Commonwealth or other Allied armies on the Kantō Plain in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates229-29">[29]</a> The first official "plans indicated that assault, followup, and reserve units would all come from US forces".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates229-29">[29]</a>

By mid-1945—when plans for Coronet were being reworked—many other Allied countries had "offered ground forces, and a debate developed" amongst Western Allied political and military leaders, "over the size, mission, equipment, and support of these contingents".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates229-29">[29]</a> Following negotiations, it was decided that Coronet would include a joint <a href="Commonwealth_Corps" title="Commonwealth Corps">Commonwealth Corps</a>, made up of infantry divisions from the Australian, <a href="New_Zealand_Army" title="New Zealand Army">New Zealand</a>, <a href="British_Army" title="British Army">British</a> and <a href="Canadian_Army" title="Canadian Army">Canadian</a> armies. Reinforcements would have been available from those countries, as well as other parts of the Commonwealth. However, MacArthur blocked proposals to include an <a href="British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">Indian Army</a> division because of differences in language, organization, composition, equipment, training and doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay299-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates230-31">[31]</a> He also recommended that the corps be organized along the lines of a U.S. corps, should use only U.S. equipment and logistics, and should train in the U.S. for six months before deployment; these suggestions were accepted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDay299-30">[30]</a>

The British Government suggested that: Lieutenant-General Sir <a href="Charles_Keightley" title="Charles Keightley">Charles Keightley</a> should command the Commonwealth Corps, a combined Commonwealth fleet should be led by Vice-Admiral Sir <a href="William_Tennant_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="William Tennant (Royal Navy officer)">William Tennant</a>, and that—as Commonwealth air units would be dominated by the RAAF – the Air Officer Commanding should be Australian.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> However, the Australian government questioned the appointment of Keightley, an officer with no experience in fighting the Japanese. <a href="Frederick_Shedden" title="Frederick Shedden">Frederick Shedden</a> suggested that Lieutenant General <a href="Leslie_Morshead" title="Leslie Morshead">Leslie Morshead</a>, an Australian who had been carrying out the <a href="New_Guinea_campaign" title="New Guinea campaign">New Guinea</a> and <a href="Borneo_campaign_(1945)" class="mw-redirect" title="Borneo campaign (1945)">Borneo campaigns</a>, should be appointed. The war ended before the details of the corps were finalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorner418-33">[33]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Projected_initial_commitment">Projected initial commitment</h3></div>

<th>Operation

</th>

<th>Olympic<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

</th>

<th>Coronet<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Personnel

</th>

<td>705,556

</td>

<td>1,171,646

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Vehicles

</th>

<td>136,812

</td>

<td>222,514

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Shipping troop lift requirement (dwt)

</th>

</td>

<td>1,741,023

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Infantry divisions

</th>

<td>11

</td>

<td>20

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Marine divisions

</th>

<td>3

</td>

<td>3

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Armored divisions

</th>

<td>0

</td>

<td>2

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Air groups

</th>

<td>40

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Figures for Coronet exclude values for both the immediate strategic reserve of 3 divisions as well as the 17 division strategic reserve in the U.S. and any British/Commonwealth forces.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation_Ketsugō">Operation Ketsugō</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%8F%B7%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6" class="extiw external" title="ja:決号作戦">ja:決号作戦</a></div>

Meanwhile, the Japanese had their own plans. Initially, they were concerned about an invasion during the summer of 1945. However, the <a href="Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a> went on for so long that they concluded the Allies would not be able to launch another operation before the <a href="1945_Pacific_typhoon_season" title="1945 Pacific typhoon season">typhoon season</a>, during which the weather would be too risky for amphibious operations. Japanese intelligence predicted fairly closely where the invasion would take place: southern Kyūshū at Miyazaki, Ariake Bay and/or the <a href="Satsuma_Peninsula" title="Satsuma Peninsula">Satsuma Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates102-37">[37]</a> Unlike the Germans, who were fooled about the <a href="Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a>, the Japanese accurately predicted the location and timing of the planned invasion before the United States decided them.<a href="#cite_note-pearlman1996-38">[38]</a>

While Japan no longer had a realistic prospect of winning the war, Japan's leaders believed they could make the cost of invading and occupying the Home Islands too high for the Allies to accept, which would lead to some sort of <a href="Armistice" title="Armistice">armistice</a> rather than total defeat. The Japanese plan for defeating the invasion was called Operation Ketsugō <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%BA%E5%8F%B7%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6" class="extiw external" title="ja:決号作戦">(ja)</a> (決号作戦, ketsugō sakusen) ("Operation: Decisive" or "Final Battle"). The Japanese planned to commit the entire population of Japan to resisting the invasion, and from June 1945 onward, a propaganda campaign calling for "The Glorious Death of One Hundred Million" commenced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayMillet2000520-39">[39]</a> The main message of "The Glorious Death of One Hundred Million" campaign was that it was "glorious to die for the holy emperor of Japan, and every Japanese man, woman, and child should die for the Emperor when the Allies arrived".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayMillet2000520-39">[39]</a>

Although it was not realistic that the entire Japanese population would be killed off, both American and Japanese officers at the time predicted a Japanese death toll in the millions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayMillet2000520-39">[39]</a> From the Battle of Saipan onward, Japanese propaganda intensified the glory of patriotic death and depicted the Americans as merciless "white devils."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDower1986246–47-40">[40]</a> During the Battle of Okinawa, Japanese officers had ordered civilians unable to fight to commit suicide rather than fall into American hands, and all available evidence suggests the same orders would have been given in the home islands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDower1986299-41">[41]</a> The Japanese were secretly <a href="Matsushiro_Underground_Imperial_Headquarters" title="Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters">constructing an underground headquarters</a> in Matsushiro, Nagano Prefecture, to shelter the Emperor and the Imperial General Staff during an invasion. In planning for Operation Ketsugo, IGHQ overestimated the strength of the invading forces: while the Allied invasion plan called for fewer than 70 divisions, the Japanese expected up to 90.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200962-42">[42]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kamikaze">Kamikaze</h3></div>

Admiral <a href="Matome_Ugaki" title="Matome Ugaki">Matome Ugaki</a> was recalled to Japan in February 1945 and given command of the Fifth Air Fleet on Kyūshū. The Fifth Air Fleet was assigned the task of <a href="Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">kamikaze</a> attacks against ships involved in the invasion of Okinawa, <a href="Operation_Ten-Go" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Ten-Go">Operation Ten-Go</a>, and began training pilots and assembling aircraft for the defense of Kyūshū, the first invasion target.

The Japanese defense relied heavily on kamikaze planes. In addition to fighters and bombers, they reassigned almost all of their trainers for the mission. More than 10,000 aircraft were ready for use in July (with more by October), as well as hundreds of newly built <a href="Shin'y%C5%8D-class_suicide_motorboat" class="mw-redirect" title="Shin'yō-class suicide motorboat">small suicide boats</a> to attack Allied ships offshore.

Up to 2,000 kamikaze planes launched attacks during the Battle of Okinawa, achieving approximately one hit per nine attacks. At Kyūshū, because of the more favorable circumstances (such as terrain that would reduce the Allies' radar advantage, and the impressment of wood and fabric airframe training aircraft into the kamikaze role which would have been difficult for Allied radar systems of the time to detect and track), they hoped to raise that to one for six by overwhelming the US defenses with large numbers of kamikaze attacks within a period of hours. The Japanese estimated that the planes would sink more than 400 ships; since they were training the pilots to target transports rather than carriers and destroyers, the casualties would be disproportionately greater than at Okinawa. One staff study estimated that the kamikazes could destroy a third to half of the invasion force before landing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank184–85-43">[43]</a>

Admiral King, Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Navy, was so concerned about losses from kamikaze attacks that he and other senior naval officers argued for canceling Operation Downfall and for instead continuing the fire-bombing campaign against Japanese cities and the blockade of food and supplies until the Japanese surrendered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayMillet2000520–21-44">[44]</a> However, General Marshall argued that forcing surrender that way might take several years, if ever.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayMillet2000521-45">[45]</a> Accordingly, Marshall and United States Secretary of the Navy <a href="Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Frank Knox</a> concluded the Americans would have to invade Japan to end the war, regardless of casualties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurrayMillet2000521-45">[45]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval_forces">Naval forces</h3></div>

Despite the shattering damage it had absorbed by this stage of the war, the <a href="Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Imperial Japanese Navy</a>, by then organized under the Navy General Command, was determined to inflict as much damage on the Allies as possible. Remaining major warships numbered four battleships (all damaged), five damaged aircraft carriers, two cruisers, 23 destroyers, and 46 submarines.<a href="#cite_note-Japanese_Monograph_No._85_pp._16-46">[46]</a> However, the IJN lacked enough fuel for further sorties by its capital ships and planned instead to use its anti-aircraft firepower to defend naval installations while docked in port.<a href="#cite_note-Japanese_Monograph_No._85_pp._16-46">[46]</a> Despite its inability to conduct large-scale fleet operations, the IJN still maintained a fleet of thousands of warplanes and possessed nearly 2 million personnel in the Home Islands, ensuring it a large role in the coming defensive operation.

In addition, Japan had about 100 Kōryū-class <a href="Midget_submarine" title="Midget submarine">midget submarines</a>, 300 smaller <a href="Kairy%C5%AB-class_submarine" title="Kairyū-class submarine">Kairyū</a>-class midget submarines, 120 <a href="Kaiten" title="Kaiten">Kaiten</a> <a href="Manned_torpedo" class="mw-redirect" title="Manned torpedo">manned torpedoes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Japanese_Monograph_No._85_pp._16-46">[46]</a> and 2,412 <a href="Shinyo_(suicide_boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shinyo (suicide boat)">Shin'yō</a> suicide motorboats.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009131-47">[47]</a> Unlike the larger ships, these, together with the destroyers and fleet submarines, were expected to see extensive action defending the shores, with a view to destroying about 60 Allied transports.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009257-48">[48]</a>

The Navy trained a unit of <a href="Frogman" title="Frogman">frogmen</a> to serve as suicide bombers, the <a href="Fukuryu" title="Fukuryu">Fukuryu</a>. They were to be armed with contact-fuzed <a href="Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">mines</a>, and to dive under landing craft and blow them up. An inventory of mines was anchored to the sea bottom off each potential invasion beach for their use by the suicide divers, with up to 10,000 mines planned. Some 1,200 suicide divers had been trained before the Japanese surrender.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground_forces">Ground forces</h3></div>

The two defensive options against amphibious invasion are strong defense of the beaches and <a href="Defense_in_depth" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense in depth">defense in depth</a>. Early in the war (such as at <a href="Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a>), the Japanese employed strong defenses on the beaches with little or no manpower in reserve, but this tactic proved vulnerable to pre-invasion <a href="Naval_gunfire_support" title="Naval gunfire support">shore bombardment</a>. Later at <a href="Battle_of_Peleliu" title="Battle of Peleliu">Peleliu</a>, <a href="Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a>, and Okinawa, they switched strategies and dug in their forces in the most defensible terrain.

For the defense of Kyūshū, the Japanese took an intermediate posture, with the bulk of their defensive forces a few kilometers inland, back far enough to avoid complete exposure to naval bombardment, but close enough that the Americans could not establish a secure foothold before engaging them. The counteroffensive forces were still farther back, prepared to move against the largest landing.

In March 1945, there was only one combat division in Kyūshū. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the <a href="Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> in <a href="Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200921-51">[51]</a> and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200970–72-52">[52]</a> By August, the formations, including three tank brigades, had a total of 900,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank203-53">[53]</a> Although the Japanese were able to muster new soldiers, equipping them was more difficult. By August, the Japanese Army had the equivalent of 65 divisions in the homeland but only enough equipment for 40 and ammunition for 30.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank176-54">[54]</a>

The Japanese did not formally decide to stake everything on the outcome of the Battle of Kyūshū, but they concentrated their assets to such a degree that there would be little left in reserve. By one estimate, the forces in Kyūshū had 40% of all the ammunition in the Home Islands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank177-55">[55]</a>

In addition, the Japanese had organized the <a href="Volunteer_Fighting_Corps" title="Volunteer Fighting Corps">Volunteer Fighting Corps</a>, which included all healthy men aged 15 to 60 and women 17 to 40 for a total of 28 million people, for combat support and, later, combat jobs. Weapons, training and uniforms were generally lacking: many were armed with nothing better than antiquated firearms, <a href="Molotov_cocktail" title="Molotov cocktail">molotov cocktails</a>, <a href="Yumi" title="Yumi">longbows</a>, swords, knives, bamboo or wooden spears, and even clubs and truncheons: they were expected to make do with what they had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank188–89-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer_&_Coox-57">[57]</a> One mobilized high school girl, Yukiko Kasai, found herself issued an <a href="Scratch_awl" title="Scratch awl">awl</a> and told, "Even killing one American soldier will do. ... You must aim for the <a href="Abdomen" title="Abdomen">abdomen</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank189-58">[58]</a> They were expected to serve as a "second defense line" during the Allied invasion, and to conduct <a href="Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla warfare</a> in urban areas and mountains.

The Japanese command intended to organize its Army personnel according to the following plan:<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

<caption>Mobilization plan

</caption>

<th scope="col">Region

</th>

<th scope="col">Number mobilized

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Kyushu

</td>

<td>900,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Kanto (Tokyo)

</td>

<td>950,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Korea

</td>

<td>247,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Total

</td>

<td>3,150,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="2">For the decisive battle

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Kyushu

</td>

<td>990,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Kanto

</td>

<td>1,280,000

</td></tr>

</tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allied_re-evaluation_of_Operation_Olympic">Allied re-evaluation of Operation Olympic</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Air_threat">Air threat</h3></div>

US military intelligence initially estimated the number of Japanese aircraft to be around 2,500.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank206-60">[60]</a> The Okinawa experience was bad for the US—almost two fatalities and a similar number wounded per <a href="Sortie" title="Sortie">sortie</a>—and Kyūshū was likely to be worse. To attack the ships off Okinawa, Japanese planes had to fly long distances over open water; to attack the ships off Kyūshū, they could fly overland and then short distances out to the landing fleets. Gradually, intelligence learned that the Japanese were devoting all their aircraft to the kamikaze mission and taking effective measures to conserve them until the battle. An Army estimate in May was 3,391 planes; in June, 4,862; in August, 5,911. A July Navy estimate, abandoning any distinction between training and combat aircraft, was 8,750; in August, 10,290.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank209–10-61">[61]</a> By the time the war ended, the Japanese actually possessed some 12,700 aircraft in the Home Islands, roughly half kamikazes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009xviii-62">[62]</a> Ketsu plans for Kyushu envisioned committing nearly 9,000 aircraft according to the following sequence:<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a>

<ul><li>140 reconnaissance planes to detect the approach of the Allied fleet.</li>

<li>330 Navy bombers flown by highly trained pilots to attack the Allied carrier task force to prevent it from supporting the invasion convoys.</li>

<li>50 "land attack planes," 50 seaplane bombers, and 50 torpedo bombers flown by highly trained pilots for night attacks on convoy escorts.</li>

<li>825 Navy kamikazes to attack the landing convoys prior to their arrival off Kyūshū.</li>

<li>2,500 Army aircraft (conventional as well as suicide), together with 2,900 Naval trainers for kamikaze attacks against the landing fleet as it arrived and anchored (5,400 total).</li>

<li>2,000 Army and Navy "air superiority" fighters to escort the kamikazes and strafe landing ships.</li>

<li>100 transport planes carrying 1,200 commandos for a raid on the US airbases on Okinawa, following the success of earlier smaller-scale operations.</li></ul>

The Japanese planned to commit the majority of their air forces to action within 10 days after the Allied fleet's arrival off Kyūshū. They hoped that at least 15 to 20% (or even up to a half) of the US transport ships would be destroyed before disembarkation.<a href="#cite_note-OLYMPIC_VS_KETSU-GO-64">[64]</a> The United States Strategic Bombing Survey subsequently estimated that if the Japanese managed 5,000 kamikaze sorties, they could have sunk around 90 ships and damaged another 900, roughly triple the Navy's losses at Okinawa.<a href="#cite_note-:0-65">[65]</a>

Allied counter-kamikaze preparations were known as the <a href="Big_Blue_Blanket" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Blue Blanket">Big Blue Blanket</a>. This involved adding more fighter squadrons to the carriers in place of <a href="Torpedo_bomber" title="Torpedo bomber">torpedo</a> and <a href="Dive_bomber" title="Dive bomber">dive bombers</a>, and converting <a href="Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress" title="Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress">B-17s</a> into airborne <a href="Radar_picket" title="Radar picket">radar pickets</a> in a manner similar to present-day <a href="Airborne_Early_Warning_and_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne Early Warning and Control">AWACS</a>. Nimitz planned a pre-invasion feint, sending a fleet to the invasion beaches a couple of weeks before the real invasion, to lure out the Japanese on their one-way flights, who would then find ships bristling with anti-aircraft guns instead of the valuable, vulnerable transports.

The main defense against Japanese air attacks would have come from the massive fighter forces being assembled in the <a href="Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a>. The US Army Fifth and Seventh Air Forces and US Marine air units had moved into the islands immediately after the invasion, and air strength had been increasing in preparation for the all-out assault on Japan. In preparation for the invasion, an air campaign against Japanese airfields and transportation arteries had commenced before the Japanese surrender.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ground_threat">Ground threat</h3></div>

Through April, May, and June, Allied intelligence followed the buildup of Japanese ground forces, including five divisions added to Kyūshū, with great interest, but also some complacency, still projecting that in November the total for Kyūshū would be about 350,000 servicemen. That changed in July, with the discovery of four new divisions and indications of more to come. By August, the count was up to 600,000, and <a href="Magic_(cryptography)" title="Magic (cryptography)">Magic cryptanalysis</a> had identified nine divisions in southern Kyūshū—three times the expected number and still a serious underestimate of the actual Japanese strength.

Estimated troop strength in early July was 350,000,<a href="#cite_note-MacEachin_p16-66">[66]</a> rising to 545,000 in early August.<a href="#cite_note-MacEachin_p18-67">[67]</a>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">The intelligence revelations about Japanese preparations on Kyushu emerging in mid-July transmitted powerful shock waves both in the Pacific and in Washington. On 29 July, MacArthur's intelligence chief, <a href="Charles_A._Willoughby" title="Charles A. Willoughby">Major General Charles A. Willoughby</a>, was the first to note that the April estimate allowed for the Japanese capability to deploy six divisions on Kyushu, with the potential to deploy ten. "These [six] divisions have since made their appearance, as predicted," he observed, "and the end is not in sight." If not checked, this threatened "to grow to [the] point where we attack on a ratio of one (1) to one (1) which is not the recipe for victory."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank211Willoughby's_Amendment_1_to_"G-2_Estimate_of_the_Enemy_Situation_with_Respect_to_Kyushu"-68">[68]</a></blockquote>

By the time of surrender, the Japanese had over 735,000 military personnel either in position or in various stages of deployment on Kyushu alone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009Appendix_B.-69">[69]</a> The total strength of the Japanese military in the Home Islands amounted to 4,335,500, of whom 2,372,700 were in the Army and 1,962,800 in the Navy.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The buildup of Japanese troops on Kyūshū led American war planners, most importantly General George Marshall, to consider drastic changes to Olympic, or replacing it with a different invasion plan.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_weapons">Chemical weapons</h3></div>

Fears of "an Okinawa from one end of Japan to the other"<a href="#cite_note-Burnham1995-71">[71]</a> encouraged the Allies to consider unconventional weapons, including chemical warfare. Widespread <a href="Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical warfare</a> was considered against Japan's population<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> and food crops.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> While large quantities of gas munitions were manufactured and plans were drawn, it is unlikely they would have been used. <a href="Richard_B._Frank" title="Richard B. Frank">Richard B. Frank</a> states that when the proposal reached Truman in June 1945, he vetoed the use of chemical weapons against personnel; their use against crops, however, remained under consideration. According to <a href="Edward_J._Drea" title="Edward J. Drea">Edward J. Drea</a>, the strategic use of chemical weapons on a massive scale was not seriously studied or proposed by any senior American leader; rather, they debated the tactical use of chemical weapons against pockets of Japanese resistance.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>

Although chemical warfare had been outlawed by the <a href="Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a>, neither the United States nor Japan was a signatory at the time. While the US had promised never to initiate gas warfare, Japan <a href="Japanese_war_crimes#Use_of_chemical_weapons" title="Japanese war crimes">had used gas against the Chinese</a> earlier in the war:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates84-75">[75]</a>

<blockquote class="templatequote">Fear of Japanese retaliation [to chemical weapon use] lessened because by the end of the war Japan's ability to deliver gas by air or long-range guns had all but disappeared. In 1944 <a href="Ultra_(cryptography)" title="Ultra (cryptography)">Ultra</a> revealed that the Japanese doubted their ability to retaliate against United States use of gas. “Every precaution must be taken not to give the enemy cause for a pretext to use gas,” the commanders were warned. So fearful were the Japanese leaders that they planned to ignore isolated tactical use of gas in the home islands by the US forces because they feared escalation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates97-76">[76]</a></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite">— Skates</div>

In addition to use against people, the U.S. military considered chemical attacks to kill crops in an attempt to starve the Japanese into submission. The Army began experimenting with compounds to destroy crops in April 1944, and within one year had narrowed over 1,000 agents to nine promising ones containing <a href="Phenoxy_herbicide" title="Phenoxy herbicide">phenoxyacetic acids</a>. One compound designated LN-8 performed best in tests and went into mass production. Dropping or spraying the <a href="Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicide</a> was deemed most effective; a July 1945 test from an SPD Mark 2 bomb, originally crafted to hold biological weapons like <a href="Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a> or <a href="Ricin" title="Ricin">ricin</a>, had the shell burst open in the air to scatter the chemical agent. By the time the war ended, the Army was still trying to determine the optimal dispersal height to cover a wide enough area. The ingredients in LN-8 and another tested compound would later be used to create <a href="Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>, used during the <a href="Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h3></div>

On Marshall's orders, Major General <a href="John_E._Hull" title="John E. Hull">John E. Hull</a> looked into the <a href="Tactical_nuclear_weapon" title="Tactical nuclear weapon">tactical use of nuclear weapons</a> for the invasion of the Japanese home islands, even after the dropping of two <a href="Strategic_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic nuclear weapons">strategic atomic bombs</a> on Japan (Marshall did not think that the Japanese would capitulate immediately). Colonel <a href="Lyle_E._Seeman" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyle E. Seeman">Lyle E. Seeman</a> reported that at least seven <a href="Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>-type plutonium implosion bombs would be available by X-Day, which could be dropped on defending forces. Seeman advised that American troops not enter an area hit by a bomb for "at least 48 hours"; the risk of <a href="Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">nuclear fallout</a> was not well understood, and such a short time after detonation would have exposed American troops to substantial radiation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank312–13-78">[78]</a>

<a href="Ken_Nichols" class="mw-redirect" title="Ken Nichols">Ken Nichols</a>, the District Engineer of the <a href="Manhattan_Engineer_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattan Engineer District">Manhattan Engineer District</a>, wrote that at the beginning of August 1945, "[p]lanning for the invasion of the main Japanese home islands had reached its final stages, and if the landings actually took place, we might supply about fifteen atomic bombs to support the troops."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols201-79">[79]</a> An air burst 1,800–2,000 ft (550–610 m) above the ground had been chosen for the (Hiroshima) bomb to achieve maximum blast effects, and to minimize residual radiation on the ground, as it was hoped that American troops would soon occupy the city.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENichols175,_198,_223-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_targets">Alternative targets</h3></div>

The Joint Staff planners, taking note of the extent to which the Japanese had concentrated on Kyūshū at the expense of the rest of Japan, considered alternate places to invade such as the island of <a href="Shikoku" title="Shikoku">Shikoku</a>, northern Honshu at <a href="Sendai%2C_Miyagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sendai, Miyagi">Sendai</a>, or <a href="Ominato%2C_Aomori" class="mw-redirect" title="Ominato, Aomori">Ominato</a>. They also considered skipping the preliminary invasion and going directly at Tokyo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank273–74-81">[81]</a> Attacking northern Honshu would have the advantage of a much weaker defense but had the disadvantage of giving up land-based air support (except the <a href="Boeing_B-29_Superfortress" title="Boeing B-29 Superfortress">B-29s</a>) from <a href="Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawa</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prospects_for_Olympic">Prospects for Olympic</h3></div>

MacArthur dismissed any need to change his plans:

<blockquote class="templatequote">I am certain that the Japanese air potential reported to you as accumulating to counter our OLYMPIC operation is greatly exaggerated. … As to the movement of ground forces… I do not credit… the heavy strengths reported to you in southern Kyushu. … In my opinion, there should not be the slightest thought of changing the Olympic operation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank274–75-82">[82]</a></blockquote>

However, King was prepared to oppose proceeding with the invasion, with Nimitz's concurrence, which would have set off a major dispute within the US government:

<blockquote class="templatequote">At this juncture, the key interaction would likely have been between Marshall and Truman. There is strong evidence that Marshall remained committed to an invasion as late as 15 August. … But tempering Marshall's personal commitment to invasion would have been his comprehension that civilian sanction in general, and Truman's in particular, was unlikely for a costly invasion that no longer enjoyed consensus support from the armed services.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank357-83">[83]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_intentions">Soviet intentions</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Proposed_Soviet_invasion_of_Hokkaido" title="Proposed Soviet invasion of Hokkaido">Proposed Soviet invasion of Hokkaido</a></div>

Unknown to the Americans, the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> also considered invading a major Japanese island, <a href="Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>, by the end of August 1945,<a href="#cite_note-FP-84">[84]</a> which would have put pressure on the Allies to act sooner than November.

In the early years of World War II, the Soviets had planned on building a huge navy to catch up with the <a href="Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. However, the <a href="Operation_Barbarossa" title="Operation Barbarossa">German invasion of the Soviet Union</a> in June 1941 forced the suspension of this plan: the Soviets had to divert most of their resources to fighting the Germans and their allies, primarily on land, throughout most of the war, leaving their navy relatively poorly equipped.<a href="#cite_note-Frank-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenPolmar1995180–185-87">[87]</a> As a result, in <a href="Project_Hula" title="Project Hula">Project Hula</a> (1945), the United States transferred about 100 naval vessels out of the 180 planned to the Soviet Union in preparation for the planned Soviet entry into the war against Japan. The transferred vessels included <a href="Amphibious_assault_ship" title="Amphibious assault ship">amphibious assault ships</a>.

At the <a href="Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> (February 1945), the Allies had agreed that the Soviet Union would take the <a href="Karafuto_Prefecture" title="Karafuto Prefecture">southern part</a> of the island of <a href="Sakhalin" title="Sakhalin">Sakhalin</a>, which Japan had <a href="Japanese_invasion_of_Sakhalin" title="Japanese invasion of Sakhalin">invaded</a> during the 1904–1905 <a href="Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a>, and which <a href="Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> had ceded in the <a href="Treaty_of_Portsmouth" title="Treaty of Portsmouth">Treaty of Portsmouth</a> after the war (the Soviets already controlled the northern part), and the Kuril Islands, which had been assigned to Japan in the <a href="Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1875)" title="Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875)">1875 Treaty of St. Petersburg</a>. On the other hand, no agreement envisaged Soviet participation in the invasion of Japan itself.

The Japanese had kamikaze aircraft in southern Honshu and Kyushu which would have opposed operations Olympic and Coronet. It is unknown to what extent they could have opposed Soviet landings in the far north of Japan. For comparative purposes, about 1,300 <a href="Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Western Allied</a> ships deployed during the Battle of Okinawa (April–June 1945). In total, 368 ships, including 120 <a href="Amphibious_craft" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibious craft">amphibious craft</a>, were badly damaged, and another 28, including 15 landing ships and 12 destroyers, were sunk, mostly by kamikazes. The Soviets, however, had fewer than 400 ships, most of them not equipped for amphibious assault, when they declared war on Japan on August 8, 1945.<a href="#cite_note-JANE-88">[88]</a>

For Operation Downfall, the US military envisaged requiring more than 30 divisions for a successful invasion of the Japanese home islands. In comparison, the Soviet Union had about 11 divisions available, comparable to the 14 divisions the US estimated that it would require to invade southern Kyushu. The Soviet <a href="Invasion_of_the_Kuril_Islands" title="Invasion of the Kuril Islands">invasion of the Kuril Islands</a> (August 18 – September 1, 1945) took place after Japan's capitulation on August 15. However, the Japanese forces in those islands resisted quite fiercely although some of them proved unwilling to fight after Japan's surrender on August 15. In the <a href="Battle_of_Shumshu" title="Battle of Shumshu">Battle of Shumshu</a> (August 18–23, 1945), the Soviet Red Army had 8,821 troops that were not supported by tanks and without back-up from larger warships. The well-established Japanese garrison had 8,500 troops and fielded about 77 tanks. The battle lasted one day, with minor combat actions going on for four more after the official surrender of Japan and the garrison, during which the attacking Soviet forces lost over 516 troops and five of the 16 <a href="LCI(L)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCI(L)">landing ships</a> (many of these formerly belonged to the US Navy and were later given to the Soviet Union) to Japanese <a href="Coastal_artillery" title="Coastal artillery">coastal artillery</a>, and the Japanese lost over 256 troops. According to Soviet claims, Soviet casualties during the Battle of Shumshu totaled up to 1,567, and the Japanese suffered 1,018 casualties.

During World War II, the Japanese had a <a href="Naval_base" title="Naval base">naval base</a> at <a href="Paramushiro" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramushiro">Paramushiro</a> in the Kuril Islands and several bases in Hokkaido. Since Japan and the Soviet Union maintained a state of wary neutrality until the Soviet declaration of war on Japan in August 1945, Japanese observers based in Japanese-held territories in Manchuria, Korea, Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands constantly watched the port of <a href="Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a> and other <a href="Seaports" class="mw-redirect" title="Seaports">seaports</a> in the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenPolmar1995115–120-89">[89]</a>

According to <a href="Thomas_B._Allen_(author)" title="Thomas B. Allen (author)">Thomas B. Allen</a> and <a href="Norman_Polmar" title="Norman Polmar">Norman Polmar</a>, the Soviets had carefully drawn up detailed plans for the Far East invasions, except that the landing for Hokkaido "existed in detail" only in Stalin's mind and that it was "unlikely that Stalin had interests in taking Manchuria and even taking on Hokkaido. Even if he wanted to grab as much territory in Asia as possible, he was too much focused on establishing a beachhead in Europe more so than Asia."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllenPolmar1995168–175-90">[90]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Estimated_casualties">Estimated casualties</h2></div>

Due to the nature of combat in the Pacific Theater and the characteristics of the Japanese Armed Forces, it was accepted that a direct invasion of mainland Japan would be very difficult and costly. The Allies would not only have to contend with all available Japanese military forces that could be brought to bear, but also the resistance of a "fanatically hostile population."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland2-16">[16]</a> Depending on the scope and context, casualty estimates for American forces ranged from 220,000 to several million, and estimates of Japanese military and civilian casualties ran from the millions to the tens of millions. Casualty estimates did not include potential losses from <a href="Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">radiation poisoning</a> resulting from the tactical use of nuclear weapons or from Allied POWs who would have been executed by the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>

In the aftermath of the Marianas Campaign, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) revised their planning document, "Operations against Japan subsequent to Formosa" (JCS 924), to reflect the experience gained. Taking into account the stiff resistance of the Japanese 31st Army at <a href="Battle_of_Saipan" title="Battle of Saipan">Saipan</a>, they concluded that if U.S. forces had to defeat all 3.5 million Japanese soldiers who could be made available, "it might cost us half a million American lives and many times that number wounded."<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Despite the high numbers, by the spring of 1945 a figure of 500,000 battle casualties for the projected invasion was widely used in briefings, while totals of closer to a million were used for actual planning purposes.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> U.S. planners hoped that by seizing a few vital strategic areas they could establish "effective military control" over Japan without the need to clear the entire archipelago or defeat the Japanese on mainland Asia, thereby avoiding excessive losses.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

Covering only the U.S. Army, the <a href="Army_Service_Forces" title="Army Service Forces">Army Service Forces</a> (ASF) planning document of January 15, 1945, "Redeployment of the United States Army after the Defeat of Germany," expected that an average of 43,000 replacements for "dead and evacuated wounded"<a href="#cite_note-95">[a]</a> would be needed each month between June 1945 and December 1946 to carry out the final phase of the war against Japan.<a href="#cite_note-:1-96">[95]</a> Projected losses in these categories, excluding those of the Navy and Marine Corps, totaled approximately 723,000 through the end of 1946 and 863,000 through the first part of 1947.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a>

<caption>ASF Casualty Estimate, January 15, 1945 (Excluding non-evacuated wounded, Navy, and Marine Corps casualties)<a href="#cite_note-100">[b]</a>

</caption>

<th rowspan="2">Quarter

</th>

<th colspan="2">Pacific Ocean Area

</th>

<th colspan="2">Southwest Pacific

</th>

<th colspan="2">North Pacific

</th>

<th colspan="2">China-Burma-India

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Dead

</th>

<th>Evacuated Wounded

</th>

<th>Dead

</th>

<th>Evacuated Wounded

</th>

<th>Dead

</th>

<th>Evacuated Wounded

</th>

<th>Dead

</th>

<th>Evacuated Wounded

</th></tr>

<td>Q3 1945

</td>

<td>10,000

</td>

<td>23,000

</td>

<td>13,000

</td>

<td>29,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,500

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>6,000

</td></tr>

<td>Q4 1945

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">16,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">35,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">12,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">28,500

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>6,000

</td></tr>

<td>Q1 1946

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">24,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">50,500

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">11,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">24,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>7,000

</td></tr>

<td>Q2 1946

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">28,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">61,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">11,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">23,500

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>7,000

</td></tr>

<td>Q3 1946

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">30,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">64,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">11,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">25,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>7,000

</td></tr>

<td>Q4 1946

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">30,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">65,500

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">10,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">23,500

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>7,000

</td></tr>

<td>1947

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">30,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">64,500

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">10,000

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">24,500

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>1,000

</td>

<td>2,000

</td>

<td>7,000

</td></tr>

<td>Total

</td>

<td>168,000

</td>

<td>363,500

</td>

<td>78,000

</td>

<td>178,000

</td>

<td>7,000

</td>

<td>7,500

</td>

<td>14,000

</td>

<td>47,000

</td></tr></tbody></table>

</caption>

<th colspan="2">Total for Downfall and Concurrent Operations

</th></tr>

<td>Dead and Missing

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">223,000

</td></tr>

<td>Evacuated Wounded

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">489,500

</td></tr>

<td>Total

</td>

<td style="background: #d5ffaf;">712,500

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="2">Total to Defeat Japan (July 1945 – February 1947)

</th></tr>

<td>Dead and Missing

</td>

<td>267,000

</td></tr>

<td>Evacuated Wounded

</td>

<td>596,000

</td></tr>

<td>Total

</td>

<td>863,000

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Two days later on January 17, letters from President Roosevelt, General Marshall, and Admiral King to House Military Affairs Committee Chairman <a href="Andrew_J._May" title="Andrew J. May">Andrew J. May</a> were released to the New York Times, informing the public that "the Army must provide 600,000 replacements for overseas theaters before June 30, and, together with the Navy, will require a total of 900,000 inductions by June 30." Of the Navy's target of 300,000, a large proportion were required for "manning the rapidly expanding fleet" rather than replacing battle casualties.<a href="#cite_note-101">[99]</a>

Acting on the basis of sensitive information obtained from contacts in the military, former President <a href="Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a>, a close personal friend of incoming President Harry S. Truman, submitted a memorandum on May 15, 1945, to Secretary of War <a href="Henry_L._Stimson" title="Henry L. Stimson">Henry Stimson</a>. Hoover's memorandum indicated that defeating Japan could cost 0.5 to 1.0 million American lives. The same week, Kyle Palmer, Los Angeles Times war correspondent at Admiral Nimitz's headquarters, warned that "it will cost 500,000 to 750,000, perhaps 1,000,000 lives of American boys to end this war." Those numbers were given in the context of revised estimates of Japanese military strength, still classified, which indicated that the Japanese Army had the potential to mobilize 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 soldiers rather than the 3.5 million assessed by JCS 924.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a>

On May 28, Hoover and Truman met at the White House and conversed for several hours. At Truman's request Hoover prepared four memoranda on the issues discussed (1. The European Food Organization, 2. The Domestic Food Organization, 3. The Creation of a War Economic Council, and 4. The Japanese Situation—in which Hoover twice repeated his figure of 0.5 to 1.0 million American deaths). Truman "seized" on memo 4 and asked for written judgements on it from Stimson, Undersecretary of State <a href="Joseph_Grew" title="Joseph Grew">Joseph Grew</a>, Director of the Office of Mobilization and Reconversion <a href="Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred Vinson</a>, and former Secretary of State <a href="Cordell_Hull" title="Cordell Hull">Cordell Hull</a>. Truman was particularly interested in hearing from Grew and Stimson and asked to meet with them in person.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a>

Neither Hull nor Grew objected to Hoover's estimate, but Stimson forwarded his copy of "Memo 4" to Marshall's deputy Chief of Staff, General <a href="Thomas_T._Handy" title="Thomas T. Handy">Thomas T. Handy</a>. As with the "worst case" scenario from JCS 924, Handy wrote that "under our present plan of campaign" (emphasis original), "the estimated loss of 500,000 lives [...] is considered to be entirely too high." Both Marshall and General George A. Lincoln, chief of the Operations Division (OPD), agreed with Handy's remarks.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> Nonetheless, it was emphasized that an invasion would cost "a lot of lives."<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a>

Appalled at the prospect of an impending bloodbath, Truman ordered a meeting scheduled for June 18, 1945, involving the JCS, Stimson, and Secretary of the Navy <a href="James_Forrestal" title="James Forrestal">James Forrestal</a>. At stake was the decision to press forward with Downfall or to opt for the Navy's long-standing proposal of blockade and bombardment. To support the meeting, the Joint War Plans Committee (JWPC) hastily assembled a table illustrating the casualties that could be expected in an invasion of Japan based on the experience of the <a href="Battle_of_Leyte" title="Battle of Leyte">Battle of Leyte</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> That estimate, which was significantly lower than those that had been made previously, was deleted from a subsequent version of the document and not shown to the President.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> The meeting concluded with all participants agreeing that the invasion would be "bloody but essential for victory." Truman expressed hope of avoiding "an Okinawa from one end of Japan to the other."<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a>

Throughout the summer, as the intelligence picture concerning Japanese Army strength in the Home Islands became more and more unfavorable, together with new data from the fighting on Iwo Jima and Okinawa, casualty predictions were continually revised upward. During the first week of August, approximately 50 reporters from the United States, Britain, and Australia were given an "off the record" briefing at General MacArthur's headquarters in Manila, where they were informed that final operations against Japan could result in up to a million American casualties.<a href="#cite_note-109">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[c]</a> An internal memorandum from Marshall to Leahy implied that by June 30, 1946, there would be approximately 275,000 Army soldiers in serious enough condition to require hospitalization in the United States. That excluded the dead and missing; losses of other branches; patients previously discharged and sent back to their units or invalidated from service; and patients in forward hospitals in Hawai'i, the Philippines, Australia, Kyushu, and elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-112">[109]</a> The number of beds to be made available in such forward hospitals was planned to total about 150,000, a general rule being that available beds should exceed expected casualties (excluding deaths) by 20%.<a href="#cite_note-113">[110]</a> By war's end nearly half a million <a href="Purple_Heart" title="Purple Heart">Purple Heart medals</a> were on hand with more being produced in anticipation of the invasion; in 2003 there were still some 120,000 of this stockpile left.<a href="#cite_note-114">[111]</a>

Writing in "Military Review: June 1946" No. 3, MacArthur's intelligence chief, Major General <a href="Charles_A._Willoughby" title="Charles A. Willoughby">Charles A. Willoughby</a>, concluded that destroying "two to two and a half Japanese divisions [exacts] a total of 40,000 American battle casualties on land." Using that "sinister ratio," he claimed that U.S. forces could have expected over 700,000 casualties at four key locations in mainland Japan. The estimate excluded losses from "the shattering kamikaze attack," combat against Naval ground forces personnel and militia, and any reinforcements the Japanese might have been able to bring in to the battle areas. Willoughby regarded that ratio as "a completely authentic yardstick to forecast what it would have taken in losses had we gone in shooting."<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a>

<caption>Major General Willoughby's Estimate, June 1946 (excluding Navy)

</caption>

<th>Location

</th>

<th>Japanese divisions

</th>

<th>American casualties

</th></tr>

<td>Kyushu

</td>

<td>13–14

</td>

<td>200,000

</td></tr>

<td>Shikoku

</td>

<td>4–5

</td>

<td>80,000

</td></tr>

<td>Kanto Plain

</td>

<td>22

</td>

<td>400,000

</td></tr>

<td>Sendai

</td>

<td>2

</td>

<td>30,000

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<caption>Estimated Losses from kamikaze & bomber attacks

</caption>

<th>Source

</th>

<th>Ships sunk

</th>

<th>Ships damaged

</th>

<th>Killed & missing

</th>

<th>Wounded

</th>

<th>Notes

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>USSBS<a href="#cite_note-:0-65">[65]</a>

</td>

<td>90

</td>

<td>900

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td>Assumes 5,000 kamikaze sorties

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>"Postwar Estimate"<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a>

</td>

<td>90

</td>

<td>900

</td>

<td>21,000

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Dr. R. P. Hallion<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a>

</td>

<td colspan="2">900 "sunk or damaged"

</td>

<td colspan="2">22,000 killed and wounded

</td>

<td>Assumes 6,400 kamikaze aircraft

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Dr. R. P. Hallion<a href="#cite_note-Pearl_to_VJ-Day-118">[115]</a>

</td>

<td colspan="2">2,300 "sunk or damaged"

</td>

<td colspan="2">57,000 killed and wounded

</td>

<td>Assumes 16,400 kamikaze aircraft<a href="#cite_note-119">[d]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>D.M. Giangreco<a href="#cite_note-120">[116]</a>

</td>

<td>95

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td>29,000

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td>6 sunk from surface attacks

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Japanese Planners<a href="#cite_note-Pearl_to_VJ-Day-118">[115]</a>

</td>

<td colspan="2">N/A

</td>

<td colspan="2">50,000 killed and wounded

</td>

<td>From kamikaze attacks alone

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Japanese Planners<a href="#cite_note-OLYMPIC_VS_KETSU-GO-64">[64]</a>

</td>

<td>150–200

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td colspan="2">N/A

</td>

<td>"Conservative" estimate

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Japanese Planners<a href="#cite_note-OLYMPIC_VS_KETSU-GO-64">[64]</a>

</td>

<td>675

</td>

<td>N/A

</td>

<td colspan="2">N/A

</td>

<td>500 from kamikazes, 125 from surface attacks

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="POW_executions">POW executions</h2></div>

In addition to battle casualties, hundreds of thousands of prisoners of war and civilian internees were also scheduled to be executed by the Japanese. Beginning in the summer of 1944, Japanese leaders issued a series of directives to prison camp commandants that all prisoners were to be "liquidated" when Allied troops approached the camps. The objective was to prevent the prisoners from rioting or being utilized as a fighting force, and camp commandants were given flexibility as to how the "liquidation" would be accomplished.<a href="#cite_note-121">[e]</a> The main emphasis was to "annihilate all captives, not allowing a single one to escape," and that "no trace" should be left of their existence or the existence of the prison camps.<a href="#cite_note-122">[117]</a> At the end of the war many POWs were in the process of digging their own graves in preparation for their deaths.<a href="#cite_note-123">[118]</a>

Historically, the orders led to the massacre of POWs on several occasions, including on <a href="Palawan_massacre" title="Palawan massacre">Palawan Island</a>, in which men were burned alive in their barracks, shot, or stabbed. The Palawan massacre prompted American forces to organize daring rescue missions to save other prisoners from execution, such as the <a href="Raid_at_Cabanatuan" title="Raid at Cabanatuan">"Great Raid" on Cabanatuan</a>. On August 20, 1945, the Japanese government secretly distributed an order formally authorizing guards and other perpetrators to flee to escape punishment for their crimes.<a href="#cite_note-124">[119]</a>

<caption>Allied prisoners in Japanese hands, August 1945<a href="#cite_note-125">[120]</a>

</caption>

<th>Prisoners of War

</th>

<th>Civilian Internees

</th>

<th>Total

</th></tr>

<td>170,000

</td>

<td>115,000

</td>

<td>285,000

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Japanese_casualties">Japanese casualties</h2></div>

Throughout the Pacific War, the Imperial Japanese Army earned a reputation of fighting practically to the last man. By the early summer of 1945, there had not been one instance of an organized surrender by any Japanese unit, even under the most hopeless conditions.<a href="#cite_note-126">[121]</a> The Japanese suffered especially from starvation and disease: according to historian <a href="Akira_Fujiwara" title="Akira Fujiwara">Akira Fujiwara</a>, out of 2.3 million military deaths between 1937 and 1945, 1.4 million (61%) were attributable to these causes. A further 358,000 (15.5%) died from drowning as a result of the American air and submarine campaign against Japanese shipping.<a href="#cite_note-127">[122]</a> During the <a href="Philippines_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Philippines campaign (1944–1945)">reconquest of the Philippines</a> as many as 80% of Japanese deaths were from starvation and disease,<a href="#cite_note-128">[123]</a> while the proportion in <a href="New_Guinea_campaign" title="New Guinea campaign">New Guinea</a> may have reached 97%.<a href="#cite_note-129">[124]</a> Even in battles where starvation was not as great of a factor, Japanese losses were skewed higher because their island garrisons had no means of resupply or evacuation. Former Ensign Kiyoshi Endo, an <a href="Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a> survivor, later recalled: "The number of deaths on the Japanese side was much larger, because the Americans rescued and treated their injured. Japanese soldiers who were injured could have survived if they were rescued, but that was not possible, so they all died."

In contrast to previous campaigns, Admiral King pointed out that the Japanese Army in the Home Islands would have several advantages that its overseas counterparts did not. It would have more "room to maneuver, and would not be so vulnerable to the overpowering air and naval power which the Allies had been able to bring to bear [...] on small and isolated islands." It would also be near to its bases of supply and reinforcement, and have the support of a friendly population. For these reasons Admiral King was cautious about using casualty rates from previous battles to predict the course of fighting in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-130">[125]</a>

Under the Ketsu-Go (結語, "conclusion") plan, all divisions assigned to coastal defense were ordered to stand and fight "even to utter annihilation," while heavy counterattacks by reserves aimed to force a decisive battle near the beachheads.<a href="#cite_note-131">[126]</a> If that had failed, the surviving mobile elements would have retreated to strongholds around <a href="Mount_Aso" title="Mount Aso">Mount Aso</a> on Kyushu and in <a href="Matsushiro_Underground_Imperial_Headquarters" title="Matsushiro Underground Imperial Headquarters">Nagano Prefecture</a> on Honshu for protracted resistance.<a href="#cite_note-132">[127]</a> Given their chosen tactics, American military historian <a href="Richard_B._Frank" title="Richard B. Frank">Richard B. Frank</a> concluded that "it is hard to imagine that fewer than [40 to 50%]" of Japanese soldiers and sailors in the invasion areas "would have fallen by the end of the campaign."<a href="#cite_note-133">[128]</a>

Civilian casualties were also expected to be high, both as a direct result of military action and indirectly from other causes. During the Battle of Okinawa, between 10 and 25% of the civilian population died.<a href="#cite_note-134">[129]</a> A worst-case scenario, published on July 21, 1945 by physicist <a href="William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William B. Shockley</a>, predicted that "at least" 5 to 10 million Japanese—military and civilians—could die, with a corresponding American casualty total of up to 4 million. The war ended before this document, "Proposal for Increasing the Scope of Casualties Studies," could be considered in detail.<a href="#cite_note-:02-135">[130]</a> Army Service Forces planners assessed that approximately one third of Japanese civilians within the invasion areas on Kyushu and Honshu would flee as refugees or die, leaving the remainder (including wounded and sick) to be cared for by the occupation authorities.<a href="#cite_note-136">[131]</a>

<caption>ASF Estimate of Effect on Japanese Civilians

</caption>

<th>Location

</th>

<th>Initial Population

</th>

<th>Refugees and Deaths

</th>

<th>Remaining behind U.S. lines

</th></tr>

<td>Southern Kyushu

</td>

<td>3,300,000

</td>

<td>1,100,000

</td>

<td>2,200,000

</td></tr>

<td>Kanto Plain

</td>

<td>14,500,000

</td>

<td>5,100,000

</td>

<td>9,400,000

</td></tr>

<td>Total

</td>

<td>17,800,000

</td>

<td>6,200,000

</td>

<td>11,600,000

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Japanese leaders regarded Ketsu-Go as apocalyptic battle in which they would either succeed or be destroyed as a nation. Propagandists frequently repeated the slogan that 'all 100 million people of the Empire should be prepared to sacrifice themselves,' and that even if they failed, "the memory of Japan will be inscribed in history forever."<a href="#cite_note-137">[132]</a>

Internally, it was believed that while the whole people would not be annihilated, losses would be heavy. In an August 13 meeting with Army Chief of Staff <a href="Yoshijir%C5%8D_Umezu" title="Yoshijirō Umezu">Umezu</a>, Chief of the Naval General Staff Toyoda, and Foreign Minister Togo, Admiral <a href="Takijir%C5%8D_%C5%8Cnishi" title="Takijirō Ōnishi">Takijiro Onishi</a> claimed, "If we are prepared to sacrifice 20 million Japanese lives in a <a href="Kamikaze" title="Kamikaze">special attack</a> effort, victory shall be ours!"<a href="#cite_note-138">[133]</a> Later Marquis <a href="K%C5%8Dichi_Kido" title="Kōichi Kido">Koichi Kido</a> also gave the figure of 20 million to an interrogator for the <a href="International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East" title="International Military Tribunal for the Far East">Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal</a>, but in reference to total casualties instead of deaths.<a href="#cite_note-139">[134]</a> Lt. Col. Masahiko Takeshita, a staff officer at the War Ministry and brother in law of War Minister <a href="Korechika_Anami" title="Korechika Anami">Korechika Anami</a>, testified that:

"We did not believe that the entire people would be completely annihilated through fighting to the finish. Even if a crucial battle were fought in the homeland and the Imperial Forces were confined to the mountainous regions, the number of Japanese killed by enemy forces would be small. Despite the constant victories of Japanese troops in the <a href="Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">China Incident</a>, relatively few Chinese were killed. Almost all the strategic points in China were occupied, but the Chungking Government could not be defeated. [But] even if the whole [Japanese] race were all but wiped out, its determination to preserve the national polity would be forever recorded in the annals of history."<a href="#cite_note-140">[135]</a>

As a result of the American naval blockade and strategic bombing campaign, the food situation in Japan had become difficult. By the end of the war the average person consumed 10 to 25% fewer calories than in 1941,<a href="#cite_note-141">[136]</a> and this amount was declining. In January 1946, future Prime Minister <a href="Shigeru_Yoshida" title="Shigeru Yoshida">Shigeru Yoshida</a> warned that unless emergency food aid was rushed to Japan, up to 10 million people could starve to death by the end of 1946.<a href="#cite_note-142">[137]</a> Other estimates, including those of agricultural experts working under <a href="Supreme_Commander_for_the_Allied_Powers" title="Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers">MacArthur's headquarters</a>, ranged from 7 million<a href="#cite_note-143">[138]</a> to 11 million.<a href="#cite_note-144">[139]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appendix_1:_Landing_schedules_for_Olympic_and_Coronet">Appendix 1: Landing schedules for Olympic and Coronet</h2></div>

<th colspan="7">Operation Olympic Landing Schedule<a href="#cite_note-145">[140]</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Date

</th>

<th>Miyazaki Plain

</th>

<th>Ariake Bay

</th>

<th>Kagoshima

</th>

<th>Satsuma Peninsula

</th>

<th>General Reserve

</th>

<th>Outlying Islands

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>X-5

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>40th Division, 158th RCT

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X-Day

</td>

<td>25th, 33rd Divisions

</td>

<td>43rd Division, 1st Cavalry Division

</td>

<td>2nd, 3rd, 5th Marine Divisions

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X+1

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>Balance of above divisions

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X+2

</td>

<td>41st Division

</td>

<td>Americal Division, 112th RCT

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X+3

</td>

<td colspan="3">(From General Reserve)

</td>

<td>98th, 81st Divisions

</td>

<td>158th RCT

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X+4

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>Balance of Americal Div.

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X+5

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>77th Division

</td>

<td>–

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="2">X+22

</td>

<td colspan="4">(From General Reserve)

</td>

<td>11th Airborne Division

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="5">13 Divisions, 2 RCTs

</th>

<th>1 Division, 1 RCT

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Final

</td>

<th colspan="6">815,548 men

</th></tr></tbody></table>

<th colspan="7">Operation Coronet Landing Schedule<a href="#cite_note-146">[141]</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2">Date

</th>

<th rowspan="2">Sagami Bay

</th>

<th rowspan="2">Boso Peninsula

</th>

<th rowspan="2">General Reserve

</th>

<th colspan="3">Strategic Reserve

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Philippines

</th>

<th>US Mainland

</th>

<th>Commonwealth Corps<a href="#cite_note-147">[142]</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Y-Day

</td>

<td>24th, 31st, 37th, 6th, 32nd, 38th Infantry Divisions, 13th, 20th Armored Divisions

</td>

<td>7th, 27th, 96th Infantry Divisions, 1st, 4th, 6th Marine Divisions

</td>

<td>97th Infantry Division (with Western Force)

</td>

<td rowspan="4">–

</td>

<td rowspan="4">–

</td>

<td rowspan="4">–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Y+30

</td>

<td>4th, 87th, 8th Infantry Divisions

</td>

<td>86th, 44th, 5th Infantry Divisions

</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Y+35

</td>

<td colspan="2">(From General Reserve)

</td>

<td>2nd, 28th, 35th Infantry Divisions, 11th Airborne Division

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Y+60

</td>

<td colspan="3">(Rear Echelon)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td rowspan="3">After Y+60

</td>

<td colspan="3">(From Strategic Reserve)

</td>

<td>95th, 104th, 91st Infantry Divisions

</td>

<td>10th Mountain Division, 5 unnamed Armored Divisions, 11 unnamed Infantry Divisions<a href="#cite_note-148">[143]</a>

</td>

<td>3rd UK Division, 6th Canadian Division, 10th Australian Division, 2nd New Zealand Division, 1 unnamed Australian Division

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="3">25 Divisions

</th>

<th colspan="3">25 Divisions

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="3">1,171,646 men

(Incl. 11th AB Div. (8,556) and 81,002 others from Kyushu)

</th>

<th>120,000 men

</th>

</th>

<th>200,000 men

</th></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Appendix_2:_Opposing_ground_force_concentration_plans">Appendix 2: Opposing ground force concentration plans</h2></div>

<caption>Olympic (Southern Kyushu only)

</caption>

<th>Date

</th>

<th>US

</th>

<th>Japanese

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>X to X+7

</td>

<td>12 divisions, 2 RCTs

</td>

<td>6 divisions

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>X+7 to X+14

</td>

<td>13 divisions, 2 RCTs

</td>

<td>12 divisions

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Final

</td>

<td>13 divisions, 2 RCTs

</td>

<td>17 divisions<a href="#cite_note-149">[144]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Personnel strength

</td>

<td>815,548 (includes 40th Division)

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Note: final personnel figure of 815,548 derived from earlier documentation; includes approximately 90,000 men (11th Airborne Division and 81,000 others) who will be transferred to Honshu.

<caption>Coronet

</caption>

<th>Date

</th>

<th>Allied

</th>

<th>Japanese

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Y-Day

</td>

<td>15 divisions

</td>

<td>20 divisions

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Y+30

</td>

<td>25 divisions

</td>

<td>28–33 divisions

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Final

</td>

<td>50 divisions

</td>

<td>28–33 divisions<a href="#cite_note-151">[146]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Personnel strength

</td>

<td>2,220,000

</td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<caption>Japanese Naval Ground Forces<a href="#cite_note-Japanese_Monograph_No._85_p._24-153">[148]</a>

</caption>

<th>Location

</th>

<th>Battalions

</th>

<th>Personnel strength

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>Miura Peninsula (Coronet Area)

</td>

<td>12

</td>

<td>20,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Sasebo Naval Base Area (Olympic Area)

</td>

<td>10

</td>

<td>16,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Kure Naval Base Area (Hiroshima)

</td>

<td>6

</td>

<td>10,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Southwestern Shikoku

</td>

<td>6

</td>

<td>10,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Maizuru Naval Base Area

</td>

<td>6

</td>

<td>10,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Shimokita Peninsula (N. Honshu)

</td>

<td>6

</td>

<td>9,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Chinkai Naval Guard District (Korea)

</td>

<td>3

</td>

<td>3,000

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Total

</td>

<td>49

</td>

<td>78,000

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Although the Japanese Navy had more than 1 million personnel in the Home Islands by August 1945, less than 100,000 were actually organized into ground combat units. Ground forces were disposed as above, to be placed under tactical command of the Army during combat operations.

<ul><li><a href="1945_(Conroy_novel)" title="1945 (Conroy novel)">1945</a> – Alternate history novel by <a href="Robert_Conroy" title="Robert Conroy">Robert Conroy</a> depicting Operation Downfall</li>

<li><a href="The_Burning_Mountain" title="The Burning Mountain">The Burning Mountain</a> – Alternate history novel by Alfred Coppel depicting the operation in the wake of a failed <a href="Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Causeway" title="Operation Causeway">Operation Causeway</a> – The planned American invasion of the Japanese-occupied <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, the <a href="Kinmen" title="Kinmen">Kinmen Islands</a> and <a href="Xiamen_Bay" title="Xiamen Bay">Xiamen Bay</a> on <a href="Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">Mainland China</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Sea_Lion" title="Operation Sea Lion">Operation Sea Lion</a> – The planned German invasion of the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation Unthinkable</a> – Contemporaneous British plans for war against the <a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_War" title="Soviet–Japanese War">Soviet–Japanese War</a></li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> A nebulous term. As it applied to the invasion of Japan, depending on the stage of the campaign, that referred to soldiers whose wounds were sufficiently grave that they could not be treated within an "evacuation window" of from 30 to 120 days after landing.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Relatively high casualties for Q3 1945 can be explained by the need to prepare for operations on the China Coast and the more protracted campaign envisioned for the Ryukyus subsequent to Okinawa.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> Additionally, the possibility of US troops participating in an invasion of the Dutch East Indies was also discussed at the end of 1944 and the beginning of 1945 when the paper was written.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> Finally, there is the consideration of lag between the end of the last quarter (when the casualties were incurred) and the start of the next (the demand for replacements).

</li>

<li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> This briefing was delivered by Major Selwyn Pepper, an accomplished journalist in civilian life who contributed to three Pulitzer Prize winning projects.<a href="#cite_note-110">[108]</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Considered unrealistically high

</li>

<li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> The text of one order reads, "Whether they are destroyed individually or in groups, or however it is done, with mass bombing, poisonous smoke, poisons, drowning, decapitation, or what, dispose of them as the situation dictates. In any case it is the aim not to allow the escape of a single one, to annihilate them all, and not to leave any traces."

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3></div>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009xvi-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009xvi_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiangreco2009">Giangreco 2009</a>, p. xvi.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacArthur-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacArthur_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMacArthur">MacArthur</a>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrank340-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrank340_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFrank">Frank</a>, p. 340.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates18-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkates18_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkates">Skates</a>, p. 18.

</li>

<a href="#CITEREFPerret">Perret</a>, as cited in: <a href="#CITEREFSilkett">Silkett</a>, p. 119

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates55–57-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkates55–57_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkates">Skates</a>, pp. 55–57.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates37-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkates37_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkates">Skates</a>, p. 37.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESpector276–77-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESpector276–77_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSpector">Spector</a>, pp. 276–77.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Defeating Japan: The Joint Chiefs of Staff and Strategy in the Pacific War, Charles F. Brower p. 59

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U.S. Navy, 1890–1990, George W. Baer p. 240

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates44–50-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkates44–50_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkates">Skates</a>, pp. 44–50.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrowser65-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowser65_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrowser65_12-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrowser">Browser</a>, pp. 65. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrowser (help)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates53–54-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkates53–54_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkates">Skates</a>, pp. 53–54.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatloff310–311-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatloff310–311_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatloff310–311_14-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatloff">Matloff</a>, pp. 310–311. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatloff (help)

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009169-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009169_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiangreco2009169_15-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiangreco2009">Giangreco 2009</a>, p. 169.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESutherland2-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland2_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESutherland2_16-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSutherland">Sutherland</a>, p. 2.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200940-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiangreco200940_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiangreco2009">Giangreco 2009</a>, p. 40.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkates160-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkates160_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkates">Skates</a>, p. 160.

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 50

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<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 53

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<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 93

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<li id="cite_note-:1-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_96-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/1800">History of Planning Division, ASF vol. 9</a> Part 7, p. 329. Retrieved November 6, 2021

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<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> History of Planning division, ASF. Part 8, pp. 372–374, 391

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<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> History of Planning Division, ASF. vol. 1, part 5, pp. 176–177

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<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> History of Planning Division, ASF vol. 4, part 3, p. 171

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<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 16, 53

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<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Giangreco 2009 pp. 55–56

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<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Giangreco 2009 pp. 56–57

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<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Giangreco, "Casualty projections for the Invasion of Japan" p. 12

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<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 57-58

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<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Giangreco, "Casualty Projections for the Invasion of Japan" p. 13

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<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> MacEachin, "The Final Months of War with Japan"

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<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 60

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<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 105

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<li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/kansascity/name/selwyn-pepper-obituary?id=4352639">[1]</a> Selwyn Pepper obituary, Retrieved January 20, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 317

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<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Giangreco, "Casualty Projections for the Invasion of Japan" p. 15

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<li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGiangreco2020" class="citation web cs1">Giangreco, D. M. (August 9, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/75-years-later-purple-hearts-made-for-an-invasion-">"75 Years Later, Purple Hearts Made for an Invasion of Japan are Still Being Awarded"</a>. History News Network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240622190224/https://www.historynewsnetwork.org/article/75-years-later-purple-hearts-made-for-an-invasion-">Archived</a> from the original on June 22, 2024. Retrieved June 22, 2024.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWilloughby1946" class="citation book cs1">Willoughby, Charles A. (June 1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P1FRMJp_VMQC&q=%22This+affords+a+completely++authentic+yardstick+to+forecast+what+it+would+have+taken+in+losses+had+we+gone+in+shooting&pg=PA4">Occupation of Japan and Japanese Reaction</a>. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Command and General Staff School. pp. 3–4.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA234981.pdf">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA234981.pdf">https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA234981.pdf</a> The Okinawa Campaign: a Case Study] p. 94. Retrieved November 1, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027203146/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329789/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-060.pdf">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329789/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-060.pdf">https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329789/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-060.pdf</a> "Pearl to VJ-Day"] p. 86. Retrieved November 1, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-Pearl_to_VJ-Day-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pearl_to_VJ-Day_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pearl_to_VJ-Day_118-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027203146/https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329789/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-060.pdf">[4]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329789/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-060.pdf">https://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/28/2001329789/-1/-1/0/AFD-100928-060.pdf</a> "Pearl to VJ-Day"] p. 178. Retrieved November 1, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> "Victory Rides the Divine Wind"

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<li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mansell.com/pow_resources/Formosa/doc2701-trans.html">Exhibit O, Order to Kill all POWs</a> Taiwan docs. Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-war/glenn-frazier#:~:text=Meanwhile%2C%20in%20Japan%2C%20Frazier%20witnessed,prison%20camp%20simply%20walked%20away.">"The War," Glenn Frazier.</a> Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mansell.com/pow_resources/Formosa/Ex-J-txt.html">Exhibit J, "Order to Flee"</a> Taiwan Docs. Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Kort, "The Columbia Guide to Hiroshima and the Bomb" p. 106

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<li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Morgan, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/3315/">Planning the Defeat of Japan</a>" p. 154. Retrieved January 16, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2020/19/Yoshida-Tao.html">The Battlefield Experience of Japanese Soldiers in the Asia-Pacific War</a>" by Yoshida Yutaka, translated by Bo Tao. Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> John Dower, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historians.org/research-and-publications/perspectives-on-history/september-2007/lessons-from-iwo-jima">Lessons from Iwo Jima</a>" citing Akira Fujiwara, "The War Dead who Starved to Death" (2001). Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Dr. David Stevens, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/journal/j34/stevens#23">The Naval Campaigns for New Guinea</a>," citing Mark Parillo, "The Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II." Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Morgan, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/digital/collection/p4013coll8/id/3315/">Planning the Defeat of Japan</a>," pp. 154–155. Retrieved January 16, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/Pearl%20Talk/The-Japanese-Plans-for-the-Defense-of-Kyushu.pdf">Japanese Plans for the Defense of Kyushu</a> p. 12. Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 158, 162

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<li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Richard B. Frank, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://slantchev.ucsd.edu/courses/pdf/Frank%20-%20No%20bomb,%20No%20end.pdf">No Bomb: No End</a>." Retrieved January 15, 2024

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<li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 119

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<li id="cite_note-:02-135"><a href="#cite_ref-:02_135-0">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 92

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<li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 116

</li>

<li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> Alvin D. Coox, "Olympic vs Ketsu-Go"

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<li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 124

</li>

<li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 327

</li>

<li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 156

</li>

<li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Clary, "The Starvation Myth" p. 8

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<li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Giangreco 2009 p. 118

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<li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Thomas, "Torpedo Squadron Four: a Cockpit View of World War II," p. 129

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<li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Finn, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft058002wk&chunk.id=d0e2485&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e2465&brand=ucpress">Winners in Peace</a>," pp. 114–115. Retrieved January 17, 2024.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a637722.pdf">U.S. Army, Sixth Army Field Order 74, 28 July 1945</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220716112107/http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a637722.pdf">Archived</a> July 16, 2022, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved November 6, 2021

</li>

<li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA637723.pdf">Staff Study Operations "Coronet" 15 August 1945</a> Retrieved November 6, 2021

</li>

<li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Giangreco 2009

</li>

<li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> History of Planning Division, ASF vol. 6 part 1 p. 29

</li>

<li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibiblio.org/pha/Pearl%20Talk/The-Japanese-Plans-for-the-Defense-of-Kyushu.pdf">Japanese Plans for the Defense of Kyushu</a> p. 11. Retrieved January 15, 2024

</li>

<li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Hattori, "Japan at War"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Giangreco 2009

</li>

<li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Hattori, "Japan at War"

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Japanese_Monograph_No._85_p._24-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Japanese_Monograph_No._85_p._24_153-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Monos/pdfs/JM-85/JM-85.pdf">Japanese Monograph No. 85</a>, p. 24. Retrieved August 23, 2015.

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3></div>

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<li><cite id="CITEREFSutherland" class="citation web cs1"><a href="Richard_K._Sutherland" title="Richard K. Sutherland">Sutherland, Richard K.</a>; et al. (May 28, 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210923182755/https://abmceducation.org/sites/default/files/3397.pdf">""Downfall": Strategic Plan for Operations in the Japanese Archipelago"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abmceducation.org/sites/default/files/3397.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on September 23, 2021. Retrieved September 11, 2021 – via ABCM Education.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFThomas2007" class="citation journal cs1">Thomas, Evan (March 2007). "The Last Kamikaze". World War II Magazine: 28.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFTillman2007" class="citation book cs1">Tillman, Barrett (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lemay00till/page/224">LeMay</a>. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lemay00till/page/224">224</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4039-7135-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMacArthur" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190817171601/https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch13.htm">"XIII 'Downfall'"</a>. Reports of General MacArthur: the Campaigns of MacArthur in the Pacific. Vol. 1. Facsimile. 1994. <a href="LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/66-60005">66-60005</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/macarthur%20reports/macarthur%20v1/ch13.htm">the original</a> on August 17, 2019. Retrieved January 26, 2023.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a href="K._Jack_Bauer" title="K. Jack Bauer">Bauer, K. Jack</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ww2pacific.com/downfall.html">Operation Downfall: Olympic, Coronet</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170924073513/http://www.ww2pacific.com/downfall.html">Archived</a> 2017-09-24 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; World War II in the Pacific, The Invasion of Japan". ww2pacific.com.</li>

<li>General Headquarters US Army Forces in the Pacific, "<a class="external text external" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Downfall_strategic_plan,_G-2_estimate_of_the_enemy_situation..pdf">"Downfall" Strategic Plan - G-2 estimate of the enemy situation</a>" "<a class="external text external" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Staff_study_operations_Olympic.pdf">Staff Study Operations - Olympic</a>" "<a class="external text external" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Staff_study_operations_Coronet.pdf">Staff Study Operations - Coronet</a>" (American plans for the invasion of Japan)</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGiangreco1997" class="citation journal cs1">Giangreco, Dennis M. (July 1997). "Casualty Projections for the U.S. Invasions of Japan, 1945–1946: Planning and Policy Implications". <a href="Journal_of_Military_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Military History">Journal of Military History</a>. 61 (3): 521–81. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2954035">10.2307/2954035</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954035">2954035</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Hoyt, Austin, <a href="American_Experience" title="American Experience">American Experience</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pacific/">Victory in the Pacific</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100412145821/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/pacific/">Archived</a> April 12, 2010, at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a href="Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a> documentary.</li>

<li>Japanese Monograph No. 23, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.warbirdforum.com/invasion.htm">Waiting for the invasion</a>" (notes on Japanese preparations for an American invasion)</li>

<li>Pearlman, Michael D., "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201102043926/https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/combat-studies-institute/csi-books/Pearlman.pdf">Unconditional Surrender, Demobilization, and the Atomic Bomb</a>"; Combat Studies Institute, U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1996.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWhite" class="citation cs2">White, HV, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgsc.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/p4013coll8/id/1148/rec/14">The Japanese Plans for the Defense of Kyushu; 31 December 1945</a> (link to PDF), OCLC</cite>.</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li>

<li><a href="ANZUS" title="ANZUS">ANZUS</a></li>

<li><a href="Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li>

<li><a href="Northeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Northeast Asia Treaty Organization">NEATO</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1940s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Morgenthau_Plan" title="Morgenthau Plan">Morgenthau Plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Hukbalahap_rebellion" title="Hukbalahap rebellion">Hukbalahap rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Jamaican_political_conflict" title="Jamaican political conflict">Jamaican political conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Dekemvriana" title="Dekemvriana">Dekemvriana</a></li>

<li><a href="Guerrilla_war_in_the_Baltic_states" title="Guerrilla war in the Baltic states">Guerrilla war in the Baltic states</a>

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Priboi" title="Operation Priboi">Operation Priboi</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Jungle" title="Operation Jungle">Operation Jungle</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupation_of_the_Baltic_states" title="Occupation of the Baltic states">Occupation of the Baltic states</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cursed_soldiers" title="Cursed soldiers">Cursed soldiers</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Unthinkable" title="Operation Unthinkable">Operation Unthinkable</a></li>

<li><a href="Gouzenko_Affair" title="Gouzenko Affair">Gouzenko Affair</a></li>

<li><a href="Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Division of Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="War_in_Vietnam_(1945%E2%80%931946)" title="War in Vietnam (1945–1946)">Operation Masterdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Blacklist_Forty" title="Operation Blacklist Forty">Operation Blacklist Forty</a></li>

<li><a href="Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li>

<li><a href="Greek_Civil_War" title="Greek Civil War">Greek Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Baruch_Plan" title="Baruch Plan">Baruch Plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Corfu_Channel_incident" title="Corfu Channel incident">Corfu Channel incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkish_Straits_crisis" title="Turkish Straits crisis">Turkish Straits crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Restatement_of_Policy_on_Germany" title="Restatement of Policy on Germany">Restatement of Policy on Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a></li>

<li><a href="1947_Polish_parliamentary_election" title="1947 Polish parliamentary election">1947 Polish parliamentary election</a></li>

<li><a href="Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Asian_Relations_Conference" title="Asian Relations Conference">Asian Relations Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="May_1947_crises" title="May 1947 crises">May 1947 crises</a></li>

<li><a href="Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">Partition of India</a></li>

<li><a href="Indo-Pakistani_war_of_1947%E2%80%931948" title="Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948">Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948</a></li>

<li><a href="1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1947–1949 Palestine war</a>

<ul><li><a href="1947%E2%80%931948_civil_war_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine">1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine</a></li>

<li><a href="1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li>

<li><a href="1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight" title="1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Marshall_Plan" title="Marshall Plan">Marshall Plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li>

<li><a href="1948_Czechoslovak_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état">1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Allied_Control_Council#Incapacitation_of_the_council" title="Allied Control Council">Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Wathbah_uprising" title="Al-Wathbah uprising">Al-Wathbah uprising</a></li>

<li><a href="Tito%E2%80%93Stalin_split" title="Tito–Stalin split">Tito–Stalin split</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Blockade" title="Berlin Blockade">Berlin Blockade</a></li>

<li><a href="Annexation_of_Hyderabad" title="Annexation of Hyderabad">Annexation of Hyderabad</a></li>

<li><a href="Madiun_Affair" title="Madiun Affair">Madiun Affair</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_betrayal" title="Western betrayal">Western betrayal</a></li>

<li><a href="Iron_Curtain" title="Iron Curtain">Iron Curtain</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_Bloc" title="Eastern Bloc">Eastern Bloc</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Bloc" title="Western Bloc">Western Bloc</a></li>

<li><a href="Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Malayan_Emergency" title="Malayan Emergency">Malayan Emergency</a></li>

<li><a href="March_1949_Syrian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">March 1949 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Valuable" title="Operation Valuable">Operation Valuable</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bamboo_curtain" title="Bamboo curtain">Bamboo curtain</a></li>

<li><a href="McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li>

<li><a href="1952_Egyptian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada (1952)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mau_Mau_rebellion" title="Mau Mau rebellion">Mau Mau rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="East_German_uprising_of_1953" title="East German uprising of 1953">East German uprising of 1953</a></li>

<li><a href="1953_Iranian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a></li>

<li><a href="Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a></li>

<li><a href="1954_Syrian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Petrov_Affair" title="Petrov Affair">Petrov Affair</a></li>

<li><a href="Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li>

<li><a href="1954_Geneva_Conference" title="1954 Geneva Conference">1954 Geneva Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="1954_Guatemalan_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Capture_of_the_Tuapse" title="Capture of the Tuapse">Capture of the Tuapse</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">First Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Jebel_Akhdar_War" title="Jebel Akhdar War">Jebel Akhdar War</a></li>

<li><a href="Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li>

<li><a href="Kashmir_Princess" title="Kashmir Princess">Kashmir Princess</a></li>

<li><a href="Bandung_Conference" title="Bandung Conference">Bandung Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit (1955)</a></li>

<li><a href="Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyprus_Emergency" title="Cyprus Emergency">Cyprus Emergency</a></li>

<li>"<a href="On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences" title="On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li>

<li><a href="1956_Pozna%C5%84_protests" title="1956 Poznań protests">1956 Poznań protests</a></li>

<li><a href="Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Revolution of 1956</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish_October" title="Polish October">Polish October</a></li>

<li><a href="Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Gladio" title="Operation Gladio">Operation Gladio</a></li>

<li><a href="Syrian_Crisis_of_1957" title="Syrian Crisis of 1957">Syrian Crisis of 1957</a></li>

<li><a href="Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">Iraqi 14 July Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">Second Taiwan Strait Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li>

<li><a href="1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li>

<li><a href="Laotian_Civil_War" title="Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a>

<ul><li><a href="Consolidation_of_the_Cuban_Revolution" title="Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution">Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a></li>

<li><a href="Night_Frost_Crisis" title="Night Frost Crisis">Night Frost Crisis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Simba_rebellion" title="Simba rebellion">Simba rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li>

<li><a href="John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a></li>

<li><a href="1960_Turkish_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1960 Turkish coup d'état">1960 Turkish coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Albanian%E2%80%93Soviet_split" title="Albanian–Soviet split">Albanian–Soviet split</a></li>

<li><a href="Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_conflict" title="Iraqi–Kurdish conflict">Iraqi–Kurdish conflict</a>

<ul><li><a href="First_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="First Iraqi–Kurdish War">First Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Crisis_of_1961" title="Berlin Crisis of 1961">Berlin Crisis of 1961</a></li>

<li><a href="Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin Wall</a></li>

<li><a href="Annexation_of_Goa" title="Annexation of Goa">Annexation of Goa</a></li>

<li><a href="Papua_conflict" title="Papua conflict">Papua conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation" title="Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation">Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation</a></li>

<li><a href="Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a>

<ul><li><a href="Angolan_War_of_Independence" title="Angolan War of Independence">Angolan War of Independence</a></li>

<li><a href="Guinea-Bissau_War_of_Independence" title="Guinea-Bissau War of Independence">Guinea-Bissau War of Independence</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozambican_War_of_Independence" title="Mozambican War of Independence">Mozambican War of Independence</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cuban_Missile_Crisis" title="Cuban Missile Crisis">Cuban Missile Crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="El_Porte%C3%B1azo" title="El Porteñazo">El Porteñazo</a></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Indian_War" title="Sino-Indian War">Sino-Indian War</a></li>

<li><a href="Communist_insurgency_in_Sarawak" title="Communist insurgency in Sarawak">Communist insurgency in Sarawak</a></li>

<li><a href="Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Eritrean_War_of_Independence" title="Eritrean War of Independence">Eritrean War of Independence</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li>

<li><a href="1963_Syrian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Assassination of John F. Kennedy">Assassination of John F. Kennedy</a></li>

<li><a href="Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a></li>

<li><a href="Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li>

<li><a href="Cypriot_intercommunal_violence#Crisis_of_1963–1964" title="Cypriot intercommunal violence">Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964</a></li>

<li><a href="Shifta_War" title="Shifta War">Shifta War</a></li>

<li><a href="Mexican_Dirty_War" title="Mexican Dirty War">Mexican Dirty War</a>

<ul><li><a href="Tlatelolco_massacre" title="Tlatelolco massacre">Tlatelolco massacre</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Guatemalan_Civil_War" title="Guatemalan Civil War">Guatemalan Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Colombian conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="1964_Brazilian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1964 Brazilian coup d'état">1964 Brazilian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Dominican_Civil_War" title="Dominican Civil War">Dominican Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesian_mass_killings_of_1965%E2%80%9366" title="Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66">Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966</a></li>

<li><a href="Transition_to_the_New_Order" title="Transition to the New Order">Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)</a></li>

<li><a href="ASEAN_Declaration" title="ASEAN Declaration">ASEAN Declaration</a></li>

<li><a href="1966_Syrian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Argentine_Revolution" title="Argentine Revolution">Argentine Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="South_African_Border_War" title="South African Border War">South African Border War</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_DMZ_Conflict" title="Korean DMZ Conflict">Korean DMZ Conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="12-3_incident" title="12-3 incident">12-3 incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Greek_junta" title="Greek junta">Greek junta</a></li>

<li><a href="1967_Hong_Kong_riots" title="1967 Hong Kong riots">1967 Hong Kong riots</a></li>

<li><a href="Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead (Italy)</a></li>

<li><a href="War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Dhofar_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Wadiah_War" title="Al-Wadiah War">Al-Wadiah War</a></li>

<li><a href="Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Protests_of_1968" title="Protests of 1968">Protests of 1968</a>

<li><a href="Prague_Spring" title="Prague Spring">Prague Spring</a></li>

<li><a href="USS_Pueblo_(AGER-2)#Pueblo_incident" title="USS Pueblo (AGER-2)">USS Pueblo incident</a></li>

<li><a href="1968_Polish_political_crisis" title="1968 Polish political crisis">1968 Polish political crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Communist_insurgency_in_Malaysia_(1968%E2%80%931989)" title="Communist insurgency in Malaysia (1968–1989)">Communist insurgency in Malaysia</a></li>

<li><a href="Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia">Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia</a></li>

<li><a href="17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="1968_Peruvian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Peruvian coup d'état">1968 Peruvian coup d'état</a>

<ul><li><a href="Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Armed_Forces_of_Peru" title="Revolutionary Government of the Armed Forces of Peru">Revolutionary Government</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="1969_Sudanese_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Goulash_Communism" title="Goulash Communism">Goulash Communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Soviet_border_conflict" title="Sino-Soviet border conflict">Sino-Soviet border conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="New_People's_Army_rebellion" title="New People's Army rebellion">New People's Army rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Note_Crisis" title="Note Crisis">Note Crisis</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1970s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li>

<li><a href="Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li>

<li><a href="Alcora_Exercise" title="Alcora Exercise">Alcora Exercise</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement (Syria)</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Communist_insurgency_in_Thailand" title="Communist insurgency in Thailand">Communist insurgency in Thailand</a></li>

<li><a href="1970_Polish_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="1970 Polish protests">1970 Polish protests</a></li>

<li><a href="Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li>

<li><a href="Ping-pong_diplomacy" title="Ping-pong diplomacy">Ping-pong diplomacy</a></li>

<li><a href="1971_JVP_insurrection" title="1971 JVP insurrection">1971 JVP insurrection</a></li>

<li><a href="Corrective_revolution_(Egypt)" title="Corrective revolution (Egypt)">Corrective revolution (Egypt)</a></li>

<li><a href="1971_Turkish_military_memorandum" title="1971 Turkish military memorandum">1971 Turkish military memorandum</a></li>

<li><a href="1971_Sudanese_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Sudanese coup d'état">1971 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="1971_Bolivian_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1971 Bolivian coup d'état">1971 Bolivian coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Four_Power_Agreement_on_Berlin" title="Four Power Agreement on Berlin">Four Power Agreement on Berlin</a></li>

<li><a href="Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">Bangladesh Liberation War</a></li>

<li><a href="1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Yemen#Disputes_with_North_Yemen" title="South Yemen">North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Yemenite_War" title="First Yemenite War">First Yemenite War</a></li>

<li><a href="Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a></li>

<li><a href="1972%E2%80%931975_Bangladesh_insurgency" title="1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency">1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency</a></li>

<li><a href="Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li>

<li><a href="1973_Uruguayan_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Uruguayan coup d'état">1973 Uruguayan coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="1973_Afghan_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Afghan coup d'état">1973 Afghan coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="1973_Chilean_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1973 Chilean coup d'état">1973 Chilean coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li>

<li><a href="1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Carnation_Revolution" title="Carnation Revolution">Carnation Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Spanish_transition_to_democracy" title="Spanish transition to democracy">Spanish transition to democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li>

<li><a href="Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">Strategic Arms Limitation Talks</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Iraqi%E2%80%93Kurdish_War" title="Second Iraqi–Kurdish War">Second Iraqi–Kurdish War</a></li>

<li><a href="Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></li>

<li><a href="15_August_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="3_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="3 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Siege of Dhaka (1975)</a></li>

<li><a href="7_November_1975_Bangladeshi_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="7 November 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état">Sipahi-Janata revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Angolan_Civil_War" title="Angolan Civil War">Angolan Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Indonesian_invasion_of_East_Timor" title="Indonesian invasion of East Timor">Indonesian invasion of East Timor</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambodian_genocide" title="Cambodian genocide">Cambodian genocide</a></li>

<li><a href="June_1976_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="June 1976 protests">June 1976 protests</a></li>

<li><a href="Mozambican_Civil_War" title="Mozambican Civil War">Mozambican Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Oromo_conflict" title="Oromo conflict">Oromo conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Ogaden_War" title="Ogaden War">Ogaden War</a></li>

<li><a href="1978_Somali_coup_attempt" title="1978 Somali coup attempt">1978 Somali coup attempt</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_Sahara_War" title="Western Sahara War">Western Sahara War</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethiopian_Civil_War" title="Ethiopian Civil War">Ethiopian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Albanian_split" title="Sino-Albanian split">Sino-Albanian split</a></li>

<li><a href="Third_Indochina_War" title="Third Indochina War">Third Indochina War</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War" title="Cambodian–Vietnamese War">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li>

<li><a href="Cambodian_conflict_(1979%E2%80%931998)" title="Cambodian conflict (1979–1998)">Cambodian conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Condor" title="Operation Condor">Operation Condor</a></li>

<li><a href="Dirty_War" title="Dirty War">Dirty War (Argentina)</a></li>

<li><a href="1976_Argentine_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1976 Argentine coup d'état">1976 Argentine coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li>

<li><a href="German_Autumn" title="German Autumn">German Autumn</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_902" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 902">Korean Air Lines Flight 902</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicaraguan_Revolution" title="Nicaraguan Revolution">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania_War" title="Uganda–Tanzania War">Uganda–Tanzania War</a></li>

<li><a href="NDF_Rebellion" title="NDF Rebellion">NDF Rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Chadian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Chadian–Libyan War">Chadian–Libyan War</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Yemenite_War" title="Second Yemenite War">Second Yemenite War</a></li>

<li><a href="Grand_Mosque_seizure" title="Grand Mosque seizure">Grand Mosque seizure</a></li>

<li><a href="Iranian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Saur_Revolution" title="Saur Revolution">Saur Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Vietnamese_War" title="Sino-Vietnamese War">Sino-Vietnamese War</a></li>

<li><a href="New_Jewel_Movement" title="New Jewel Movement">New Jewel Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="1979_Herat_uprising" title="1979 Herat uprising">1979 Herat uprising</a></li>

<li><a href="Seven_Days_to_the_River_Rhine" title="Seven Days to the River Rhine">Seven Days to the River Rhine</a></li>

<li><a href="Struggle_against_political_abuse_of_psychiatry_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union">Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1980s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" title="Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li>

<li><a href="1980_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1980 Summer Olympics boycott">1980</a> and <a href="1984_Summer_Olympics_boycott" title="1984 Summer Olympics boycott">1984 Summer Olympics boycotts</a></li>

<li><a href="Gera_Demands" title="Gera Demands">Gera Demands</a></li>

<li><a href="Peruvian_Civil_War_of_1980%E2%80%932000" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian Civil War of 1980–2000">Peruvian Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Gda%C5%84sk_Agreement" title="Gdańsk Agreement">Gdańsk Agreement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Solidarity_(Polish_trade_union)" title="Solidarity (Polish trade union)">Solidarity</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Eritrean_Civil_Wars" title="Eritrean Civil Wars">Eritrean Civil Wars</a></li>

<li><a href="1980_Turkish_coup_d'%C3%A9tat" title="1980 Turkish coup d'état">1980 Turkish coup d'état</a></li>

<li><a href="Ugandan_Bush_War" title="Ugandan Bush War">Ugandan Bush War</a></li>

<li><a href="Gulf_of_Sidra_incident_(1981)" title="Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)">Gulf of Sidra incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Martial_law_in_Poland" title="Martial law in Poland">Martial law in Poland</a></li>

<li><a href="Casamance_conflict" title="Casamance conflict">Casamance conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a></li>

<li><a href="1982_Ethiopian%E2%80%93Somali_Border_War" title="1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War">1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War</a></li>

<li><a href="Ndogboyosoi_War" title="Ndogboyosoi War">Ndogboyosoi War</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_invasion_of_Grenada" title="United States invasion of Grenada">United States invasion of Grenada</a></li>

<li><a href="Able_Archer_83" title="Able Archer 83">Able Archer 83</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneva_Summit_(1985)" title="Geneva Summit (1985)">1985 Geneva Summit</a></li>

<li><a href="Somali_Rebellion" title="Somali Rebellion">Somali Rebellion</a></li>

<li><a href="Reykjav%C3%ADk_Summit" title="Reykjavík Summit">Reykjavík Summit</a></li>

<li><a href="1986_Black_Sea_incident" title="1986 Black Sea incident">1986 Black Sea incident</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Yemen_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="South Yemen civil war">South Yemen civil war</a></li>

<li><a href="Toyota_War" title="Toyota War">Toyota War</a></li>

<li><a href="1987_Lieyu_massacre" title="1987 Lieyu massacre">1987 Lieyu massacre</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Denver" title="Operation Denver">Operation Denver</a></li>

<li><a href="1987%E2%80%931989_JVP_insurrection" title="1987–1989 JVP insurrection">1987–1989 JVP insurrection</a></li>

<li><a href="Lord's_Resistance_Army_insurgency" title="Lord's Resistance Army insurgency">Lord's Resistance Army insurgency</a></li>

<li><a href="1988_Black_Sea_bumping_incident" title="1988 Black Sea bumping incident">1988 Black Sea bumping incident</a></li>

<li><a href="8888_Uprising" title="8888 Uprising">8888 Uprising</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Solidarity" title="History of Solidarity">Solidarity</a> (<a href="Soviet_reaction_to_the_Polish_crisis_of_1980%E2%80%931981" title="Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981">Soviet reaction</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Contras" title="Contras">Contras</a></li>

<li><a href="Central_American_crisis" title="Central American crisis">Central American crisis</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_RYAN" title="Operation RYAN">Operation RYAN</a></li>

<li><a href="Korean_Air_Lines_Flight_007" title="Korean Air Lines Flight 007">Korean Air Lines Flight 007</a></li>

<li><a href="People_Power_Revolution" title="People Power Revolution">People Power Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Glasnost" title="Glasnost">Glasnost</a></li>

<li><a href="Perestroika" title="Perestroika">Perestroika</a></li>

<li><a href="Bougainville_conflict" title="Bougainville conflict">Bougainville conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First Nagorno-Karabakh War</a></li>

<li><a href="Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)" title="Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)">Afghan Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_invasion_of_Panama" title="United States invasion of Panama">United States invasion of Panama</a></li>

<li><a href="1988_Polish_strikes" title="1988 Polish strikes">1988 Polish strikes</a></li>

<li><a href="Polish_Round_Table_Agreement" title="Polish Round Table Agreement">Polish Round Table Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests_and_massacre" title="1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre">1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a></li>

<li><a href="Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall" title="Fall of the Berlin Wall">Fall of the Berlin Wall</a></li>

<li><a href="Fall_of_the_inner_German_border" title="Fall of the inner German border">Fall of the inner German border</a></li>

<li><a href="Velvet_Revolution" title="Velvet Revolution">Velvet Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Romanian_revolution" title="Romanian revolution">Romanian Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Peaceful_Revolution" title="Peaceful Revolution">Peaceful Revolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">1990s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mongolian_Revolution_of_1990" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1990">Mongolian Revolution of 1990</a></li>

<li><a href="Min_Ping_Yu_No._5540_incident" title="Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident">Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident</a></li>

<li><a href="German_reunification" title="German reunification">German reunification</a></li>

<li><a href="Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li>

<li><a href="Fall_of_communism_in_Albania" title="Fall of communism in Albania">Fall of communism in Albania</a></li>

<li><a href="Breakup_of_Yugoslavia" title="Breakup of Yugoslavia">Breakup of Yugoslavia</a></li>

<li><a href="Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">Dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>

<ul><li><a href="1991_Soviet_coup_attempt" title="1991 Soviet coup attempt">1991 August Coup</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dissolution_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Dissolution of Czechoslovakia">Dissolution of Czechoslovakia</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="Frozen_conflict" title="Frozen conflict">Frozen conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abkhazia_conflict" title="Abkhazia conflict">Abkhazia</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_status_of_Taiwan" title="Political status of Taiwan">China-Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_status_of_Kosovo" title="Political status of Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li>

<li><a href="Georgian%E2%80%93Ossetian_conflict" title="Georgian–Ossetian conflict">South Ossetia</a></li>

<li><a href="Transnistria_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Transnistria War">Transnistria</a></li>

<li><a href="Sino-Indian_border_dispute" title="Sino-Indian border dispute">Sino-Indian border dispute</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Borneo_dispute" title="North Borneo dispute">North Borneo dispute</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Foreign policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Truman_Doctrine" title="Truman Doctrine">Truman Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li>

<li><a href="Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Hallstein_Doctrine" title="Hallstein Doctrine">Hallstein Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Kennedy_Doctrine" title="Kennedy Doctrine">Kennedy Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Peaceful_coexistence" title="Peaceful coexistence">Peaceful coexistence</a></li>

<li><a href="Ostpolitik" title="Ostpolitik">Ostpolitik</a></li>

<li><a href="Johnson_Doctrine" title="Johnson Doctrine">Johnson Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Brezhnev_Doctrine" title="Brezhnev Doctrine">Brezhnev Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ulbricht_Doctrine" title="Ulbricht Doctrine">Ulbricht Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Carter_Doctrine" title="Carter Doctrine">Carter Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Reagan_Doctrine" title="Reagan Doctrine">Reagan Doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Paasikivi%E2%80%93Kekkonen_doctrine" title="Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine">Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine</a></li>

<li><a href="Rollback" title="Rollback">Rollback</a></li>

<li><a href="Kinmen_Agreement" title="Kinmen Agreement">Kinmen Agreement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_school_of_economics" title="Chicago school of economics">Chicago school</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">American conservatism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Monetarism" title="Monetarism">Monetarism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">Neoclassical economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reaganomics" title="Reaganomics">Reaganomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">Supply-side economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Democratic_capitalism" title="Democratic capitalism">Democratic capitalism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li>

<li><a href="Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_Fidel_Castro" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Fidel Castro">Castroism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li>

<li><a href="Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li>

<li><a href="Hoxhaism" title="Hoxhaism">Hoxhaism</a></li>

<li><a href="Juche" title="Juche">Juche</a></li>

<li><a href="Ho_Chi_Minh_Thought" title="Ho Chi Minh Thought">Ho Chi Minh Thought</a></li>

<li><a href="Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li>

<li><a href="Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li>

<li><a href="Stalinism" title="Stalinism">Stalinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></li>

<li><a href="Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Nazism" title="Neo-Nazism">Neo-Nazism</a></li>

<li><a href="Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li>

<li><a href="Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li>

<li><a href="Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">Liberal democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Illiberal_democracy" title="Illiberal democracy">Illiberal democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Guided_democracy" title="Guided democracy">Guided democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Third-worldism" title="Third-worldism">Third-worldism</a></li>

<li><a href="White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li>

<li><a href="White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White nationalism</a></li>

<li><a href="White_supremacy#White_separatism" title="White supremacy">White separatism</a></li>

<li><a href="Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li>

<li><a href="Finlandization" title="Finlandization">Finlandization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">SEATO</a></li>

<li><a href="Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li>

<li><a href="Comecon" title="Comecon">Comecon</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Neutral_and_Non-Aligned_European_States" title="Neutral and Non-Aligned European States">NN States</a></li>

<li><a href="ASEAN" title="ASEAN">ASEAN</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Asian_Association_for_Regional_Cooperation" title="South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation">SAARC</a></li>

<li><a href="Safari_Club" title="Safari Club">Safari Club</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Propaganda</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-communist</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Active_measures" title="Active measures">Active measures</a></li>

<li><a href="Izvestia" title="Izvestia">Izvestia</a></li>

<li><a href="Neues_Deutschland" title="Neues Deutschland">Neues Deutschland</a></li>

<li><a href="Pravda" title="Pravda">Pravda</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_Moscow" title="Radio Moscow">Radio Moscow</a></li>

<li><a href="Rud%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Rudé právo">Rudé právo</a></li>

<li><a href="Trybuna_Ludu" title="Trybuna Ludu">Trybuna Ludu</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Life" title="Russian Life">Soviet Life</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Pro-Western</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Amerika_(magazine)" title="Amerika (magazine)">Amerika</a></li>

<li><a href="Crusade_for_Freedom" title="Crusade for Freedom">Crusade for Freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Paix_et_Libert%C3%A9" title="Paix et Liberté">Paix et Liberté</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Red_Scare" title="Red Scare">Red Scare</a></li>

<li><a href="Voice_of_America" title="Voice of America">Voice of America</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Technological competition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Nuclear arms race</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gar_Alperovitz" title="Gar Alperovitz">Gar Alperovitz</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_A._Bailey" title="Thomas A. Bailey">Thomas A. Bailey</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Beschloss" title="Michael Beschloss">Michael Beschloss</a></li>

<li><a href="Archie_Brown_(historian)" title="Archie Brown (historian)">Archie Brown</a></li>

<li><a href="Warren_H._Carroll" title="Warren H. Carroll">Warren H. Carroll</a></li>

<li><a href="Adrian_Cioroianu" title="Adrian Cioroianu">Adrian Cioroianu</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Costello_(historian)" title="John Costello (historian)">John Costello</a></li>

<li><a href="Michael_Cox_(academic)" title="Michael Cox (academic)">Michael Cox</a></li>

<li><a href="Nicholas_J._Cull" title="Nicholas J. Cull">Nicholas J. Cull</a></li>

<li><a href="Norman_Davies" title="Norman Davies">Norman Davies</a></li>

<li><a href="Willem_Drees" title="Willem Drees">Willem Drees</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_D._English" title="Robert D. English">Robert D. English</a></li>

<li><a href="Herbert_Feis" title="Herbert Feis">Herbert Feis</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a></li>

<li><a href="Andr%C3%A9_Fontaine" title="André Fontaine">André Fontaine</a></li>

<li><a href="Anneli_Ute_Gabanyi" title="Anneli Ute Gabanyi">Anneli Ute Gabanyi</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a></li>

<li><a href="Lloyd_Gardner" title="Lloyd Gardner">Lloyd Gardner</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Garton_Ash" title="Timothy Garton Ash">Timothy Garton Ash</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriel_Gorodetsky" title="Gabriel Gorodetsky">Gabriel Gorodetsky</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a></li>

<li><a href="Jussi_Hanhim%C3%A4ki" title="Jussi Hanhimäki">Jussi Hanhimäki</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Earl_Haynes" title="John Earl Haynes">John Earl Haynes</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrick_J._Hearden" title="Patrick J. Hearden">Patrick J. Hearden</a></li>

<li><a href="Tvrtko_Jakovina" title="Tvrtko Jakovina">Tvrtko Jakovina</a></li>

<li><a href="Harvey_Klehr" title="Harvey Klehr">Harvey Klehr</a></li>

<li><a href="Gabriel_Kolko" title="Gabriel Kolko">Gabriel Kolko</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_LaFeber" title="Walter LaFeber">Walter LaFeber</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Laqueur" title="Walter Laqueur">Walter Laqueur</a></li>

<li><a href="Melvyn_P._Leffler" title="Melvyn P. Leffler">Melvyn P. Leffler</a></li>

<li><a href="Geir_Lundestad" title="Geir Lundestad">Geir Lundestad</a></li>

<li><a href="Vojtech_Mastny_(historian)" title="Vojtech Mastny (historian)">Vojtech Mastny</a></li>

<li><a href="Jack_F._Matlock_Jr." title="Jack F. Matlock Jr.">Jack F. Matlock Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_J._McCormick" title="Thomas J. McCormick">Thomas J. McCormick</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Naftali" title="Timothy Naftali">Timothy Naftali</a></li>

<li><a href="Marius_Oprea" title="Marius Oprea">Marius Oprea</a></li>

<li><a href="David_S._Painter" title="David S. Painter">David S. Painter</a></li>

<li><a href="William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">William B. Pickett</a></li>

<li><a href="Ronald_E._Powaski" title="Ronald E. Powaski">Ronald E. Powaski</a></li>

<li><a href="Yakov_M._Rabkin" title="Yakov M. Rabkin">Yakov M. Rabkin</a></li>

<li><a href="M._E._Sarotte" title="M. E. Sarotte">M. E. Sarotte</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_M._Schlesinger_Jr." title="Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.">Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Ellen_Schrecker" title="Ellen Schrecker">Ellen Schrecker</a></li>

<li><a href="Giles_Scott-Smith" title="Giles Scott-Smith">Giles Scott-Smith</a></li>

<li><a href="Shen_Zhihua" title="Shen Zhihua">Shen Zhihua</a></li>

<li><a href="Timothy_Snyder" title="Timothy Snyder">Timothy Snyder</a></li>

<li><a href="Athan_Theoharis" title="Athan Theoharis">Athan Theoharis</a></li>

<li><a href="Andrew_Thorpe" title="Andrew Thorpe">Andrew Thorpe</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_Tism%C4%83neanu" title="Vladimir Tismăneanu">Vladimir Tismăneanu</a></li>

<li><a href="Patrick_Vaughan" title="Patrick Vaughan">Patrick Vaughan</a></li>

<li><a href="Alex_von_Tunzelmann" title="Alex von Tunzelmann">Alex von Tunzelmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Odd_Arne_Westad" title="Odd Arne Westad">Odd Arne Westad</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Appleman_Williams" title="William Appleman Williams">William Appleman Williams</a></li>

<li><a href="Jonathan_Reed_Winkler" title="Jonathan Reed Winkler">Jonathan Reed Winkler</a></li>

<li><a href="Rudolph_Winnacker" title="Rudolph Winnacker">Rudolph Winnacker</a></li>

<li><a href="Ken_Young" title="Ken Young">Ken Young</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Espionage and intelligence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_Eastern_Bloc_agents_in_the_United_States" title="List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States">List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Soviet espionage in the United States">Soviet espionage in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_espionage_in_the_United_States" title="Russian espionage in the United States">Russian espionage in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="American_espionage_in_the_Soviet_Union_and_Russian_Federation" title="American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation">American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation</a></li>

<li><a href="CIA_and_the_Cultural_Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="CIA and the Cultural Cold War">CIA and the Cultural Cold War</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States_involvement_in_regime_change" title="United States involvement in regime change">United States involvement in regime change</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_involvement_in_regime_change" title="Soviet involvement in regime change">Soviet involvement in regime change</a></li>

<li><a href="Stasi" title="Stasi">Stasi</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a></li>

<li><a href="Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="Soviet Union–United States relations">Soviet Union–United States relations</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">Soviet Union–United States summits</a></li>

<li><a href="Russia%E2%80%93NATO_relations" title="Russia–NATO relations">Russia–NATO relations</a></li>

<li><a href="War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on terror</a></li>

<li><a href="Brinkmanship#Cold_War" title="Brinkmanship">Brinkmanship</a></li>

<li><a href="Pax_Atomica" title="Pax Atomica">Pax Atomica</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Cold_War" title="Second Cold War">Second Cold War</a></li>

<li><a href="Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li>

<li><a href="List_of_conflicts_related_to_the_Cold_War" title="List of conflicts related to the Cold War">List of conflicts</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_Cold_War" title="Timeline of the Cold War">Timeline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q300879#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata837" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q300879#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata837" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2006007582">United States</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85094985">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007548429405171">Israel</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007537660305171">2</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/5b86df47-5686-40e1-b9f8-f0960118b06b">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-08-01" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Operation_Downfall&oldid=1303696086">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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